{"id":29737,"date":"2021-06-14T17:44:43","date_gmt":"2021-06-14T15:44:43","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.akademie-solitude.de\/?p=29737"},"modified":"2021-12-02T08:58:06","modified_gmt":"2021-12-02T07:58:06","slug":"mutant-strains-mutant-rays-and-mutant-states","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.akademie-solitude.de\/de\/mutant-strains-mutant-rays-and-mutant-states\/","title":{"rendered":"Mutant Strains, Mutant Rays, and Mutant States"},"content":{"rendered":"","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"","protected":false},"author":16,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"inline_featured_image":false,"footnotes":""},"project":[353,813],"project_type":[],"class_list":["post-29737","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","project-online-publications","project-mutations-2"],"acf":{"bgcolor":"","bgcolor_custom":"","custom_color_css_variable":"","content_type":[{"acf_fc_layout":"content_txt","acfe_flexible_layout_title":"Text","bgcolor":"","bgcolor_custom":"","layout_col_size":8,"txt_cols":"is-1-txtcol","txt":"<p class=\"p1\">Trained as a biologist and historian, Luis Campos has researched the various framings and formulations of \u00bbmutation\u00ab from the early history of heredity and the very emergence of genetics as a field to the parallel speculative mutational futures envisioned by synthetic biology and astrobiology. In 2016\u201317 he served as the Baruch S. Blumberg NASA\/Library of Congress Chair in Astrobiology at the John W. Kluge Center at the Library of Congress in Washington, DC. He is currently the Secretary of the History of Science Society and associate professor of the history of science at the University of New Mexico. His most recent publication is the co-edited volume <i>Nature Remade: Engineering Life, Envisioning Worlds<\/i>, which will be published by University of Chicago Press in July 2021. His upcoming book is about the history of the intersections between synthetic biology and astrobiology, two fields exploring the ultimate futures of mutation, and the nature of \u00bblife as it could be.\u00ab<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><strong>Ana Mar\u00eda G\u00f3mez L\u00f3pez:<\/strong> <i>I would like to start our conversation with \u00bbthe mutant gaze,\u00ab a phrase you use in your article \u00bbMutant Sexuality: The Private Life of a Plant\u00ab on the Dutch botanist Hugo de Vries. I was excited to read your historic account of mutations in which the unit of analysis was not solely the gene or the organism, but the very corporeality of the scientist. This is second nature to you of course, but I read this back when I was still relatively new to the history of science and STS. I was enormously struck by the idea that one cannot divorce the physical body of the scientist from their body of work and that one\u2019s subjective embodiment is the starting point for understanding how one produces science (or creates artwork for that matter, in my case).<\/i><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\"><strong>Luis Campos:<\/strong> I see two themes you\u2019ve highlighted \u2013 one is vision and the basic ability to recognize mutation in a new species. When de Vries studied <i>Oenothera lamarckiana<\/i>, or Lamarck\u2019s evening primrose, he found an organism whose novelties led him to define the term \u00bbmutant\u00ab for the first time. He had to begin with a claim \u2013\u00a0this is a new species that has particular traits and reproduces in a consistent manner over later generations \u2013\u00a0that was visually accessible to others. This visual character of the \u00bbmutant gaze\u00ab was something that was important in establishing the shared intersubjectivity of the category of \u00bbmutation\u00ab in the first place. There is a nature out there that we can discover, and learn new things about.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p3\">On the other hand, how we put together what we observe about nature into a new understanding is a synthetic act \u2013 we invent new terms and concepts to grapple with our observations and experiences, and so our very humanity and identity as a scientist may be relevant to the kind of understanding of nature we reach. Our understanding about the nature of the world may have something to do with one\u2019s identity as a scientist. This was a question that I wanted to explore in that article, but in a new way that I had not seen done before. Scholarship from decades prior had already examined how the embodiment of being a scientist mattered, for example in access to materials, availability of time to work, one\u2019s position in the academy or outside of it, or the privilege of gentlemanly status. Questions such as how the modern laboratory emerged, or how the modern scientific article emerged from letters written between gentlemen who trusted each other\u2019s word \u2013 these elements provide the grounding for understanding science as practice, as class-based, and as in important ways fundamentally characterized by its social nature. Others have suggested that gender and race have as clear a bearing on the nature of what science comes to know \u2013 that it matters for understanding the history of development of theories of race science, for example, that it is European scientists living in particular political systems, with imperial access tied to systems of colonialism and resource extraction, who are constructing new understandings of natural history, of human diversity, of sexual difference. Race, class, gender \u2013 these are the standard categories that historians of science have sought to bring in understanding the construction of scientific knowledge of the natural world.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p4\">I was inspired by these efforts, but it soon became clear to me that what we were missing as an analytical lens in the history of science was another major category of human identity, which we now refer to with the language of sexual orientation. I had been curious to know whether there was a way in which a scientist\u2019s personal or private relationships could be useful in understanding the kind of scientific work that they produced. And when I stumbled onto the case of Hugo de Vries and his discovery of mutation in the evening primrose, a queer little plant with a queer cast of supporting characters (I learned a great deal about de Vries\u2019 personal life and that of many of his friends and supporters), it seemed like a great opportunity to expand the boundaries of the history of science. Could sexuality be a useful tool for understanding the history of mutation? Does it matter if a queer scientist studies the reproductive behavior of a plant whose behavior does not at first glance fit with the basic expectations of Mendelism?<\/p>"},{"acf_fc_layout":"content_img","acfe_flexible_layout_title":"Bild(er)","bgcolor":"","bgcolor_custom":"","layout_col_size":6,"img_gallery":false,"img":[29740],"img_gallery_format":""},{"acf_fc_layout":"content_txt","acfe_flexible_layout_title":"Text","bgcolor":"","bgcolor_custom":"","layout_col_size":8,"txt_cols":"is-1-txtcol","txt":"<p class=\"p1\">To do this work, I had to train myself in the skills of those familiar with the challenges of queer history: its silences, its coded language, and often times the simple absence of evidence for queer lives. When letters are often burned, destroyed, or do not exist, a historian has to learn to read historical sources and even scientific sources against the grain, to find things that were not designed to be saved or to be known publicly. This work also meant I had to go beyond the standard Mendelian story of heredity, to focus specifically on a plant (the evening primrose) whose modes of reproduction struck some biologists as so \u00bbaberrant\u00ab or \u00bbdegenerate\u00ab that they sometimes even called the behavior of its chromosomes \u00bbqueer.\u00ab<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p2\">Such language, at the time, was not confined to plants, and I began to wonder about the discursive overlap between the sexualities of plants and of people. Despite being called \u00bbdegenerate\u00ab for having a system of chromosomal interchange that produced hereditary patterns and novelties in variation inexplicable by changes in genes, the evening primrose is very evolutionarily successful. If the reproductive behavior of the evening primrose could not be shoehorned into traditional Mendelism, which with improvements in cytology began to imply the relationship of one parent with one sex chromosome, then I began to question whether Mendelism itself was heteronormative. Had we built into our understandings of the varied nature of hereditary systems in biology early twentieth century ideas about the \u00bbdegeneracy\u00ab of diversity of sexual orientation? Exploring the history of mutation through exploring the private life of a plant led me into and through the private life of the people who studied it. And what had been a hunch became clear: this was not only a connection that I was making \u2013 this was a clear and evident connection for my historical actors themselves.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p2\">As a historian of evolution, constraint, and contingency, I came to see how the biological theories about heredity we had inherited were inescapably about living nature, and yet also had everything to do with our all-too-human framings and our subjective embodiments. I began to envision how another kind of understanding of heredity, of reproduction, and of its evolutionary implications, could be possible \u2013 how the very emergence of our modern idea of mutation could bring into question the very categories of \u00bbsex\u00ab and \u00bbspecies\u00ab altogether (if the appearance of a new variety of plant in one\u2019s garden has to do with a whole ring of interlinked chromosomes passing along into one daughter cell or another, are we talking about a new species, or a new sex?). This \u00bbmutant gaze\u00ab could surface new ways of understanding the history of biology, and the interspecies interrelations of plants and people.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p3\">Tracing resonances across seemingly different realms is a kind of associative method at the heart of my historical practice, and something that I have in common with some varieties of artistic practice. In my earlier work in the history of biology, for example, I had explored the powerful metaphorical resonances between radioactivity and the phenomena of life, and how conceptual and rhetorical moves across these two seemingly disparate fields not only inspired but directly affected even the interpretation of experimental results themselves. Metaphors mattered. The \u00bbtransmutation\u00ab of radioactive elements and the \u00bbmutation\u00ab of species were analogous not only in mind, it turned out, but in the claims and experimental practices of my historical scientists, and intersected in provocative and productive ways at the dawn of genetics. I came to learn that our very idea of the nature and properties of a \u00bbgene\u00ab emerged from the heart of this resonance. And it was clear that our understanding of the \u00bbgene\u00ab was inseparable from our explorations of various \u00bbmutants.\u00ab Today, as we find ourselves besieged with ever-emerging new variants of concern in the Covid-19 pandemic, I am struck by the fact that in a world of dangerous mutants, we now use the language of \u00bbvariants.\u00ab Even mutants can mutate.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><i>Ana Mar\u00eda G\u00f3mez L\u00f3pez: Well, this does offer the opportunity to talk about the current SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, but also to mention one of Hugo de Vries\u2019s contemporaries \u2013 the Dutch microbiologist Martinus Beijerinck \u2013 to whom we owe the word \u00bbvirus.\u00ab This idea of defining or giving a name to that which one cannot fully recognize, much less know what one is looking for, seems very present here. <\/i><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\">Luis Campos: Yes \u2013 the \u00bbviral\u00ab as that which goes beyond what we can see even, or that which is only not filterable, right? As with Beijerinck, the viral is that which we do not know what it is exactly, but is clear that causes infection \u2013 the virus is the \u00bbas yet unknown.\u00ab<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><i>Ana Mar\u00eda G\u00f3mez L\u00f3pez: All the more so when it comes to viruses, which are not even recognized as biological organisms or afforded the qualification of being \u00bbalive,\u00ab at least by some scientists. How do you understand the idea of the \u00bbmutant gaze\u00ab within our collective experience of SARS-CoV-2?<\/i><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\">Luis Campos: There\u2019s a big question! Let me begin by threading this question back to the history of mutation, to a moment <\/span><span class=\"s1\">a few decades later when the idea of radiation-induced mutations becomes widespread after reporting of experiments done in 1927 by Hermann J. Muller, who won the Nobel Prize for his work on X-ray induced mutations in fruit flies. These possibilities of new mutants created by ionizing radiation got picked up in science fiction, and mutants, the idea of mutation, and even \u00bbmutant rays\u00ab begin to appear widespread in popular literature, including science fiction magazines. The association of radiation with mutation, with superpowers, and superhumans \u2013 think Superman and Spiderman \u2013 carried weight in a more intensely radioactive Cold War world, where an arms race foreshadowed new mutant forms of biological doom. \u00bbMutant\u00ab became a popular term at midcentury, in very much the same period that \u00bbfallout\u00ab became a matter of popular concern, following the Bravo nuclear test of 1954. Cultural responses to fears of radiation intensified, as did fears of dangerous new mutants: the film <i>Gojira<\/i> (\u00bbGodzilla\u00ab), described the great mutant monster emerging from the depths of a radioactive Pacific, the result of nuclear bomb testing. So in that moment in time, at midcentury, \u00bbmutant\u00ab is not just a technical scientific term, but one that carries these other cultural meanings: scary, yet also still playful, and potentially within the realms of comics, science fiction, or film.<\/span><\/p>"},{"acf_fc_layout":"content_img","acfe_flexible_layout_title":"Bild(er)","bgcolor":"","bgcolor_custom":"","layout_col_size":6,"img_gallery":false,"img":[29742],"img_gallery_format":""},{"acf_fc_layout":"content_txt","acfe_flexible_layout_title":"Text","bgcolor":"","bgcolor_custom":"","layout_col_size":8,"txt_cols":"is-1-txtcol","txt":"<p class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\">What I find intriguing about this particular moment we are in now, watching the news every day, is that we\u2019re talking about mutations of a virus, and yet at least the United States news reports that I have been listening to rarely use this language \u2013 rather, they refer to mutations as \u00bbvariants.\u00ab This is strange. Why is the language of \u00bbvariant\u00ab being used preferentially? Does \u00bbmutant\u00ab now cause so much fear that it must be avoided in public messaging? In a post-Chernobyl age, does \u00bbmutation\u00ab now sound like something uncontrolled or uncontrollable, fearful, and dangerous, bringing to mind cancer or other concerning conditions, such that even our particular language in this moment now deliberately avoids referring to viral mutations? Is this a way of both managing the pandemic as well as concern around its progression? I can imagine a new inquiry from the historian of the present moment: what is the history of the \u00bbvariant?\u00ab Where does that language of variants come from? And how is it being deployed in this moment? There\u2019s a history of variation as a statistical property that can overlap with a history around mutation. But what is it that is going on now, between the 2000s and 2020s, say, such that \u00bbvariant\u00ab is the preferred term today? Having hunches can be a useful creative tool for the scholar, a starting point for further investigation. And in fact, this is exactly how my previous project started, as I began to examine unexpected resonances between transmutation and mutation, or the private life of a plant (and those who studied it) and the public life of \u00bbmutation\u00ab in a broader culture. We can bring our mutant gaze to bear on the variants of concern in our world today, and uncover new meanings in our discourse.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p3\"><i>Ana Mar\u00eda G\u00f3mez L\u00f3pez: To return to one of the most exciting elements about your book <\/i>Radium and the Secret of Life<i> (University of Chicago Press, 2015), as well as in some of your earlier articles \u2013 when positioning mutations beyond a strictly \u00bbgenic\u00ab or \u00bbgene-centered\u00ab history, it is amazing to see how dominant the definition of mutation as an alteration in a DNA sequence (be it nuclear or viral) has become, despite being less than a century old. <\/i><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p3\">Luis Campos: One of my narrative experiments in <i>Radium and the Secret of Life<\/i> was to take the specificity of what a scientific term means and how it works as a tool for scientists, ultimately transforming its very meaning in strange and unexpected ways, and see if I could use this in a parallel way to unfold new and surprising insights in my own work as a historian. From the earlier twentieth-century polyvalence of the term \u00bbmutation,\u00ab I saw how its meaning constricted over succeeding decades, until it ultimately came to mean \u00bbgenic\u00ab mutation and the central role of the evening primrose \u2013 whose hereditary behavior at the heart of the very emergence of the idea of mutation itself, and which was studied without almost any reference to genes at all \u2013 was lost. In uncovering this history of the earlier forgotten and multiple meanings of \u00bbmutation,\u00ab I could recover and reanimate earlier definitions that had become inoperative \u2013 alternative understandings that reveal a much broader, far more contested, and ultimately more open history of mutation. And the further back we go from our contemporary understanding of mutation, the stranger these sorts of associations become \u2013 things that were called \u00bbmutations\u00ab then would never be called \u00bbmutations\u00ab today. And yet one knows that the history that made these associations and our meaning of mutation today possible was also eventually what made these earlier alternatives seem increasingly strange as time passed.<\/p>"},{"acf_fc_layout":"content_img","acfe_flexible_layout_title":"Bild(er)","bgcolor":"","bgcolor_custom":"","layout_col_size":6,"img_gallery":false,"img":[29744],"img_gallery_format":""},{"acf_fc_layout":"content_txt","acfe_flexible_layout_title":"Text","bgcolor":"","bgcolor_custom":"","layout_col_size":8,"txt_cols":"is-1-txtcol","txt":"<p class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\">So for me it is less a conceptual project of starting from what we think the scientific term means now, or beginning by imagining other possibilities and meanings for a term \u2013 many people in other areas of endeavor, such as artists, can do this productively and to very interesting effect \u2013 but as a historian, as I work my way backwards in time, I have another slightly different aim with similar tools. I can reveal how a reductive meaning came to be, and to understand not only how this meaning changed over time, but also what was lost in its construction. I can explore how social dimensions become written out of the meaning of a scientific term \u2013 that when people called a plant \u00bbdegenerate\u00ab or \u00bbqueer\u00ab it had more than merely biological meanings. Or that our very belief that \u00bbmutation\u00ab has essentially a genic or hereditary meaning rather than other possible meanings \u2013 that when one is talking about an alternative understanding of mutation that involves not just a genic change but a linked ring of chromosomes, say, as is the case in <i>Oenothera<\/i>, this historical understanding of the meaning of \u00bbmutation\u00ab can challenge not only our understandings of the stability of heredity (and of a plant whose reproductive mechanisms are not easily encapsulated in principles of Mendelism), but can even challenge our understanding of the very distinction between \u00bbspecies\u00ab and \u00bbsex.\u00ab We have lost these alternative histories of biology, which are not invented fictions, but only past possible understandings, lost through the constraints of historical contingency. Understanding how the meaning of mutation has become so constricted might help us explore new ways we might think to study the meaning of variation today in our very muddy, empirical world, where the emergence of one kind of conceptual clarity is only one possible outcome from an exciting epistemological tussle with the blooming, buzzing confusion around us. <\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\">The game of the historian is to uncover the meanings that were actually present in past times, and to show that despite their seeming distance from our current understanding, they may yet offer new and different ways of understanding how science actually worked and works. In the case of \u00bbmutation,\u00ab for example, this term found a place in the language of biology to describe the new phenomena of heredity even as its associations with transformation, evolution, and descent was applied to characterize the newly discovered phenomena of radioactivity (for which there was no pre-existing language at the time). It was this kind of passage across realms of scientific and cultural production, across physics and biology, across transmutation and mutation, that led to provocative and productive experiments with radium. A metaphorical resonance or conceptual association between radium and life led to the possibility of certain kinds of experiments being conducted, and even how these experiments would come to be interpreted. These associations made it not only naturally inventive but scientifically generative to relate the world of the living and the world of the radioactive.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\">Years later, when biologists began to talk about genes as radiating forces that remake the living world around them, as Muller later did, this language of radiation came to suffuse its glow throughout an emerging scientific understanding of gene action \u2013 a radioactive legacy present but now largely decayed in our understanding of basic mechanisms in molecular biology. Even as the meaning of mutation constricted, it carried forth these radioactive legacies in how we conceptualize what genes are and what they do. So, sometimes we can recover alternative histories of biology that were contingently lost; but sometimes we can come to understand the contingent ways in which unexpected and powerful legacies can become transmuted over decades.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p3\"><i>Ana Mar\u00eda G\u00f3mez L\u00f3pez: I am curious how you consider the historic permanence of the definition of mutation, as well as its accompanying conceptual frameworks, in your more recent work on astrobiology, a field that I also am very interested in precisely because it stretches our Earth-centric understanding of molecular architectures and definitions of life. You recently interviewed Steven Benner, a biochemist who aims to create DNA and RNA analogues that can support Darwinism yet differ from those found on Earth. Here, you mentioned a quote from Muller, where he said that within the \u00bbability of the gene to reproduce mutations lies the most essential secret of life itself, and of living matter as compared to lifeless.\u00ab You also described how Muller was an early mentor to Carl Sagan, and even offered us the lovely anecdote that Sagan gave Muller with a birthday card that included a photograph of Mars from the time, covered by a thread symbolizing the threads of the chromosomes of life, and Sagan\u2019s inscription of the phrase \u00bbthe red thread slowly weaves its way upwards.\u00ab You further elaborate on this in your new article \u00bbLife as It Could Be.\u00ab<\/i><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p3\">Luis Campos: A hunch is an important place for a historian to begin, but to find an actual genetic or genealogical connection \u2013 a phrase, a card, an inscription \u2013 that brings that hunch into provable historical reality is one of the most beautiful moments for a historian. That Sagan was actually the mentee of Muller is a brilliant and amazing thing in itself \u2013 you can imagine the connections, as well the resonance and juxtaposition of putting their ideas together and the implications of this in historic terms. But it\u2019s actually in finding this \u00bbred thread\u00ab itself, an inscription from a particular moment in time testifying to a deep and longstanding relationship that is needed to do the work a historian requires for an argument, that is so wonderful. In one sense, I envisioned and anticipated this connection \u2013 I invented it before I knew it was there \u2013 but then I went looking for it, and finally found it. Historians might begin with invention but must end with discovery.<\/p>"},{"acf_fc_layout":"content_img","acfe_flexible_layout_title":"Bild(er)","bgcolor":"","bgcolor_custom":"","layout_col_size":6,"img_gallery":false,"img":[29746],"img_gallery_format":""},{"acf_fc_layout":"content_txt","acfe_flexible_layout_title":"Text","bgcolor":"","bgcolor_custom":"","layout_col_size":8,"txt_cols":"is-1-txtcol","txt":"<p class=\"p1\">This tension between invention and discovery is a feature of science as much as it is a feature of history. And the ways in which good work is done in science at this intersection of invention and discovery is what I want to explore in my next work, on the intertwined histories of the engineering of life and of finding it elsewhere \u2013 of synthetic biology on the one hand, and astrobiology on the other. In the same way I explored the case of radium, I want to follow these powerful and deep resonances and rather than just suggest them, I want to establish them with irrefutable evidence. Have I invented the association? Or is it there in my sources? The answer is always both, so long as I can weave that evidence together into a compelling enough narrative that tells you something new and provable about the history of the development of a science. I did this with radium and life, and with the evening primrose and mutation and sexuality, and I hope to do something similar with this intersection as well.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\">That the engineering of life on Earth might have a great deal to do with considering how life might have emerged naturally on other worlds is thus not only a conceptual possibility or insight \u2013 it is a challenge to be proven historically. As I began to marshal the evidence I could find, it began to matter deeply to discover, for instance, that Muller was envisioning futures for engineering life on Earth at the same time that he was reading science fiction and going to science fiction congresses with Carl Sagan. Sagan\u2019s ideas about life elsewhere, for which he is most well-known today, clearly did not come from nowhere \u2013 they emerged in some significant part from these conversations with Muller. Ideas about the engineering of life and its natural alternative existence elsewhere were by mid-century never quite separate endeavors. For Muller, the gene was a biological reality and a conceptual tool, a self-replicating unit as well as abstract reproductive entity that structured the way he thought about life, both on our planet and beyond \u2013 and this dovetailed in striking ways that Sagan would later develop in astrobiology. Both men were deeply concerned with questions that we might now frame as part of a larger discourse of \u00bbhabitability\u00ab \u2013 could humans survive a radiation-doused world? Could they live elsewhere? Could something else?<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p2\"><i>Ana Mar\u00eda G\u00f3mez L\u00f3pez: What is fascinating is that this is happening at the same time that Mendelian genetics is being contested in other parts of the world, such as through Lysenkoism in the Soviet Union, for example. Likewise, astrobiology is also being defined by Soviet scientists such as Gavriil Adrianovich Tikhov, who was able to envision vegetation on other planets and develop methods to study this through the study of vascular plants alone. <\/i><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p4\">Yes \u2013 in an article I wrote for a compendium on the legacies of Lysenkoism, <i>Dialectics Denied<\/i>, I suggested that the geopolitical structure of the Cold War world may also be part of the history of the constriction of the scientific meaning of \u00bbmutation\u00ab and the loss of an intermediate level of chromosomal mutation that was increasingly problematic not only for western geneticists, but for Soviet investigators as well. For Lysenkoists, for a series of complex reasons having to do with the longstanding associations between genetics and eugenics as well as the anticlericalism of Marxism, the gene itself was understood as an ideological construction of capitalism.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\">But ideology does not only lead to illusive fictions \u2013 it can also be understood as a generative context for scientific theorizing. Tikhov\u2019s understanding of astrobotany is directly tied to his application of the principles of dialectical materialism to the understanding of the evolution of life in the universe. If you understand life as taking place in progressive stages that are predicted and expected to occur anywhere conditions are right, then we must expect there to be life in other places, Tikhov theorized. And if this life emerged on a neighboring planet, the question then emerges: how would we be able to look for it? This led Tikhov to develop methods in spectroscopy as a way to study high-altitude vegetation in the mountains of Kazakhstan, and high-latitude vegetation elsewhere, to envision (or to speculate \u2013 such optical metaphors!) how this could help him understand what he might be seeing when he looked at light from Mars through the telescope. He was studying life on Mars not through a genetic tool, or direct manipulation of an organism, but with a purely observational tool and the conceptual tool of analogy. He considered parts of the Earth as a Martian analog. Decades before Sagan, Tikhov\u2019s theorizing about the spectroscopic qualities of light from other worlds led him to conclude that looking at the Earth from a great distance away, it would appear as a pale blue dot. (Making the connection even more apparent: I first encountered Tikhov\u2019s work through a translation ordered by Sagan!)<\/p>"},{"acf_fc_layout":"content_img","acfe_flexible_layout_title":"Bild(er)","bgcolor":"","bgcolor_custom":"","layout_col_size":6,"img_gallery":false,"img":[29750],"img_gallery_format":""},{"acf_fc_layout":"content_txt","acfe_flexible_layout_title":"Text","bgcolor":"","bgcolor_custom":"","layout_col_size":8,"txt_cols":"is-1-txtcol","txt":"<p class=\"p1\"><i>Ana Mar\u00eda G\u00f3mez L\u00f3pez: It surprises me how few people know that this phrase which is regularly attributed to Sagan can actually be traced to Tikhov, whom I am researching currently in Russia for an upcoming project and first encountered through my own personal investigations on Ivan Efremov, a Soviet paleontologist who was among the first to formulate retrieval of fossilized traces of life beyond Earth and was also a well-known writer of space-travel science fiction. <\/i><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\">Luis Campos: The intersections of science fiction, space, paleontology, and the prospects for biology are a fascinating place to land. I recently referred to Efremov and his novel <span class=\"s1\"><i>The Andromeda Nebula <\/i>in a lecture I gave at the American Association for <\/span>the Advancement of Science about Michael Crichton\u2019s <i>The Andromeda Strain<\/i> \u2013 a science-fiction novel that offered to a generation of molecular biologists food for thought about the cosmic potential hazards of genetic engineering. This book, interestingly enough, was inspired by Crichton having heard this throwaway line from another paleontologist, George Gaylord Simpson, who said in a graduate seminar that there might be microorganisms that live high in the atmosphere. In a forthcoming chapter, I have written about how <i>The Andromeda Strain<\/i> gets picked up and referred to constantly during the 1975 Asilomar meeting on the potential biohazards of recombinant DNA research. And references to the novel continue to appear all the way up, even reaching the U.S. Congress and Stanford University\u2019s Office of Technology Licensing, who talk about <i>The Andromeda Strain<\/i> as a future we need to avoid.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p3\">It is in circumstances like this, where I trace the line between science and science fiction, that we can come to understand that <i>The Andromeda Strain<\/i> is not just a work of science fiction, but plays a key role in authorizing speculative futures for new innovations in genetic technologies. A science fiction novel can even change how scientists themselves imagine the future prospects and potentials for their field, and more concretely, even federal legislation governing the use of a powerful new technology of genetic engineering. In that chapter, I also look at how Andromeda is the galaxy that operates for us as a parallel, much like how Mars operates as an analog for Earth. It\u2019s also fascinating how <i>The Andromeda Strain<\/i> picks up on a speculative tradition regarding contamination in exobiology that existed for several years beforehand, and then transformed this concern into fears of laboratory mishaps in relation to the novel uses of recombinant DNA on Earth. The invention of new forms of life in the laboratory was informed by imaginaries of life as it may have emerged elsewhere \u2013 that powerful intersection between synthetic biology and astrobiology, both of which are concerned about \u00bblife as it could be.\u00ab<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\"><i>Ana Mar\u00eda G\u00f3mez L\u00f3pez: In the context of our current global pandemic, the idea of what can happen if government officials do not take appropriate precautions on rapidly mutating viral strains is certainly registering and resonating with aspects of <\/i>The Andromeda Strain<i>, otherworldly fears aside. But it does strike me that the language of a mutation as a \u00bbcontaminant\u00ab in the case of SARS-CoV-2 poses a similarity, one that falls alongside ideas of its pervasive airborne transmission, likely zoonotic origins, and ongoing speed of mutation. Yet these notions of the virus as a contaminant also nevertheless appeal to broader planetary questions of industrial pollution and anthropogenic ecological destruction. <\/i><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\">Luis Campos: This reminds me of the case of a factory linked to the so-called \u00bbradium girls\u00ab in Orange, New Jersey, which is adjacent to the Thomas Edison National Historical Park and Laboratory. Mutation and contamination are not just metaphors \u2013 they are also very real and tragic realities with consequences for our health. Some years ago, I was teaching in New Jersey, near the site of a former radium watch-painting factory. The factory had long since been demolished and the site was a simple grass field surrounded by a fence to keep people out. Yet the site was so contaminated it was designated as a toxic Superfund site, which continued to cause radon problems in the basements of houses nearby. And so a large working-class community was buying homes that had radon problems because of the factory that no one even knew had ever been there. I happened to visit the area again last year to go take a look, and while a fence had previously kept visitors out, the site had now been remediated and turned into a baseball field. There\u2019s even an orchard and garden center across the street where they do not plant in the local dirt, but have raised beds with substituted soil in which plants are grown. The radioactive contamination is literally an underlying history of this place that is only known to homeowners (if even they know) and yet is completely invisible when you drive by. While uncovering a hidden history between synthetic biology and astrobiology, or between Muller and Sagan, was invigorating and fun, and an epistemological challenge to how we might sometimes think about the nature of science or its history, not all hidden histories are fun. Sometimes they are quite toxic and dangerous.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p3\">I currently teach a course titled \u00bbAtomic America,\u00ab in which my students meet and learn from the leader of a \u00bbdownwinders\u00ab group here, an activist group that has been fighting for federal recognition and compensation for New Mexicans who were downwind of the Trinity test site in 1945. They have never been compensated, and despite having suffered generations of epidemiological effects they do not have access to federal protections and reparations, unlike downwinders in Utah, Nevada, and other places. The leader of this group is a quite powerful speaker who just testified before Congress last week \u2013 one important moment of many years of grassroots advocacy in which she has been trying to draw attention to this situation. One of her main claims is that living in the radioactive aftermath of New Mexico has led to a high rate of cancers; she herself has had her thyroid removed, and she suggests a direct correlation between the plutonium strewn across the region by the first atomic bomb blast and these illnesses. She believes that these legacy radionuclides and fission products are being constantly stirred up by the conventional bombing that still happens in the same place where the first atomic explosion took place, on the active White Sands Missile Range. While the Trinity test was a one-time event, she argues, its consequences have lasted decades for residents of the state. The half-life of plutonium is 24,000 years. What does it mean to have radioactive contamination causing health problems for people living in such a heartbreakingly beautiful but contaminated place? And how can we understand these harms in light of the longer term colonial history of New Mexico, including its later nuclear colonization with the Manhattan Project?<\/p>"},{"acf_fc_layout":"content_img","acfe_flexible_layout_title":"Bild(er)","bgcolor":"","bgcolor_custom":"","layout_col_size":6,"img_gallery":false,"img":[29752],"img_gallery_format":""},{"acf_fc_layout":"content_txt","acfe_flexible_layout_title":"Text","bgcolor":"","bgcolor_custom":"","layout_col_size":8,"txt_cols":"is-1-txtcol","txt":"<p class=\"p1\">These forgotten stories raise powerful questions about the very real health effects resulting from imbalances in privilege, power, and access. If we take our mutant gaze to these topics, so personal and human (and inhumane), we find new ways of understanding how one\u2019s subjective embodiment, one\u2019s being subject to radiation-induced mutations that can lead to cancer, can be a different sort of powerful starting point for understanding the place of science in our lives. Mutations are not only strange plants found in our gardens, objects of curiosity that can inspire a new theory, or increasingly complicated concepts that help us characterize the nature and properties of the gene. Mutations are, in an important sense, inextricable from our existence as living beings in a contaminated world.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p2\"><span class=\"s1\"><i>Ana Mar\u00eda G\u00f3mez L\u00f3pez: These multigenerational accounts about the ongoing effects of mutations in living populations offer a real and all too painful reminder that the history of radiation-induced mutation in the laboratory is often directly intertwined with its parallel experience of lethal experiments in the laboratory and in the field, which affects both humans and ecosystems alike. It is a difficult place to end \u2013 in thinking about the downwinders, I can do no better than to cite the Tokyo-based artist collective Chim\u2191Pom and their project <\/i>Don\u2019t Follow the Wind<i>.<\/i> <i>Together with other artists from Japan and elsewhere, they created in the Fukushima exclusion zone an \u00bbinhibition\u00ab rather than an \u00bbexhibition,\u00ab which will not be visited by people other than those inhabiting the area due to ongoing radioactive contamination.<\/i><\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p2\">Yes \u2013 I think this highlights quite beautifully how associative thinking can be useful not only in identifying problems, uncovering forgotten alternative histories, tracking constrictions, characterizing ideological shifts, and uncovering dangers we only imagined were buried, as I do within the constraints of the discipline of history, but can also point the way toward ever-new ways of thinking. This is why I so appreciate working with artists and others who engage in the hard work of making these often difficult connections, and who find and share with us all new possibilities for exploration and explanation, and who consider subjective embodiment not only as a conclusion, but as a starting point for artistic expression \u2013 and for the expansion of our mutant gaze.<\/p>\r\n\u00a0\r\n<p class=\"p1 is-size-6\"><strong>Luis Campos<\/strong> is associate professor in history of science and Regent\u2019s Lecturer in Arts and Science at the University of New Mexico. He held the Astrobiology chair at the John W. Kluge Center at the Library of Congress in Washington, DC, and is currently the Secretary for the History of Science Society, the primary international academic association for this field. Luis Campos published his first book <i>Radium and the Secret of Life<\/i> (University of Chicago Press, 2015) and has recently co-edited the volume <i>Nature Remade: Engineering Life, Envisioning Worlds<\/i> (forthcoming, also with University of Chicago Press). He will be a resident fellow at Akademie Schloss Solitude in 2022.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1 is-size-6\"><strong>Ana Mar\u00eda G\u00f3mez L\u00f3pez<span class=\"Apple-converted-space\">\u00a0 <\/span><\/strong>is an interdisciplinary artist and researcher based in Amsterdam. Her work has been exhibited at the deCordova Sculpture Park and Museum, Fonds d\u2019art contemporain Gen\u00e8ve, and the Rijksmuseum Boerhaave, among others. She has held residencies and fellowships at the Rijksakademie van Beeldende Kunsten, the Max Planck Institute for History of Science, the Beinecke Rare Books and Manuscripts Library, and the Vossius Center for the History of Humanities and Sciences. Ana Mar\u00eda\u2019s work during the \u00bbMutations\u00ab residency was supported in part by the Mondriaan Fund.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1 is-size-6\"><\/p>"},{"acf_fc_layout":"content_footnotes","acfe_flexible_layout_title":"Fu\u00dfnoten","bgcolor":"","footnotes_list_hide_numbers":false,"footnotes":[{"footnote":"<p class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\">Hugo de Vries (1848\u20131935) was a Dutch botanist and geneticist who first introduced the term \u00bbmutation\u00ab and developed a mutational theory of evolution, largely based on his studies of the evening primrose (<i>Oenothera<\/i>). One of the so-called \u00bbrediscoverers\u00ab of the work of Gregor Mendel, de Vries carried out hereditary studies on plants that in some ways confirmed and in other ways deeply challenged Mendel\u2019s earlier work, helping to consolidate mutation into the heart of what would soon become the early history of genetics. See Luis Campos: \u00bbMutant Sexuality: The Private Life of a Plant,\u00ab in: <i>Making Mutations: Objects, Practices, Contexts<\/i>, Luis Campos and Alexander von Schwerin (eds.), Berlin 2010, pp. 49\u201370.<\/span><\/p>"},{"footnote":"<span class=\"s1\">Ana Mar\u00eda G\u00f3mez L\u00f3pez: <i>Inoculate: A Florilegium<\/i>. http:\/\/manual.vision; and <i>Vital Practices: Self-experimentation as Artistic and Scientific Form<\/i>. https:\/\/experiments.life. (both accessed May 31, 2021).<\/span>"},{"footnote":"<p class=\"p1\">Gregor Mendel (1822\u201384) was a botanist and Augustinian monk from Brno (then Moravia, currently the Czech Republic) who was the first person to establish the mathematical foundations of classical genetics by growing pea plants with subsequent attempts using bee species. Mendelism refers to his principles regarding the inheritance of single-gene traits.<\/p>"},{"footnote":"<p class=\"p1\">Martinus Beijerink (1851\u20131931), a Dutch microbiologist, was the first person to name viruses. He used the Latin name virus, which means poison, to identify an invisible substance that could be filtered through a thin mesh and proved to sicken tobacco plants. Beijerinck asserted that the virus was somewhat liquid in nature, calling it <i>contagium vivum fluidum<\/i> (contagious living fluid). Difficult to test at the time, the <i>contagium vivum fluidum<\/i> languished for more than three decades before resurfacing as a subject of study with the electron scanning microscope.<\/p>"},{"footnote":"Hermann Joseph Muller (1876\u20131931) was a United States geneticist who studied the hereditary characteristics of fruit flies. Between 1926 and 1927,\u00a0he discovered\u00a0that the number of\u00a0genic mutations\u00a0observed in the cells of\u00a0fruit flies\u00a0increased when they were exposed to ionizing radiation such as X-rays. This finding earned him the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1946."},{"footnote":"<p class=\"p1\">The Bravo tests were high-yield nuclear energy tests that were carried out by the United States on March 1, 1954, in the Bikini Atoll of the Marshall Islands, as part of Operation Castle. At the time of its detonation, Castle Bravo was the largest nuclear explosion in history.<\/p>"},{"footnote":"<p class=\"p1\">Luis Campos and Steven Benner: \u00bbOther Genetic Alphabets,\u00ab in: <i>Journal of Design and Science<\/i>, 2018. https:\/\/jods.mitpress.mit.edu\/pub\/issue4-campos-benner (accessed May 5, 2021).<\/p>"},{"footnote":"<p class=\"p1\">Carl Sagan (1934\u201396) was a U.S. astronomer and astrophysicist, as well as one of the most popular science writers and communicators of this time. He is well-known for his television documentary series and book titled <i>Cosmos<\/i>.<\/p>"},{"footnote":"<p class=\"p1\">Luis Campos: \u00bbLife as It Could Be,\u00ab Kelly C. Smith and Carlos Mariscal (eds.): <i>Social and Conceptual Issues in Astrobiology<\/i>, New York 2020, pp. 101\u201315.<\/p>"},{"footnote":"<p class=\"p1\">Gavriil Adrianovich Tikhov (1875\u20131960) was a Soviet botanist and one of the earliest self-identified astrobiologists. He coined the term \u00bbastrobotany\u00ab in reference to his speculative postulation of extra-terrestrial life, especially the presence of vegetation on Mars. Luis Campos: \u00bbBlue Vegetation on the Red Planet: Soviet Astrobotany and Earthly Analogues for Life on Mars,\u00ab Istvan Praet and Perig Pitrou (eds.): <span class=\"s1\"><i>Anthropology of Earth<\/i><\/span>, Cambridge, forthcoming.<\/p>"},{"footnote":"<p class=\"p1\">Trofim Lysenko (1898\u20131976) was a Soviet agronomist and biologist who rejected Mendelian genetics and natural selection, leading a decades-long campaign that bore enormous influence across the Soviet Union and across the Eastern bloc, and resulted in massive censorship and execution of dissenting Soviet scientists.<\/p>"},{"footnote":"<p class=\"p1\">Luis Campos: \u00bbDialectics Denied: Muller, Lysenkoism, and the Fate of Chromosomal Mutation,\u00ab William deJong-Lambert and Nikolai Krementsov (eds.): <i>The Lysenko Controversy as a Global Phenomenon<\/i> (Volume 2). Palgrave Studies in the History of Science and Technology, London 2017, pp. 161\u2013184.<\/p>"},{"footnote":"<p class=\"p1\">Ana Mar\u00eda G\u00f3mez L\u00f3pez: \u00bbIntergalactic lithospheres: Ivan Antonovitch Efremov at the Paleontological Institute in Moscow,\u00ab <i>Center for Experimental Museology<\/i>, Moscow: V-A-C Foundation, 2020. See also an excerpt of the short film <i>Cosmos and Paleontology<\/i>, 2020. at https:\/\/vimeo.com\/amgomezlopez (accessed May 5, 2021)<\/p>"},{"footnote":"<p class=\"p1\">Luis Campos: \u00bbStrains of Andromeda: The Cosmic Potential Hazards of Genetic Engineering,\u00ab in: Campos et al.: <span class=\"s1\"><i>Nature Remade: Engineering Life, Envisioning Worlds<\/i><\/span> Chicago 2021, pp. 151\u201372.<\/p>"},{"footnote":"<p class=\"p1\">The Asilomar Conference on Recombinant DNA was held in February 1975 to discuss the potential risks of biotechnology and proposed voluntary guidelines to ensure the safety of recombinant DNA technology.<\/p>"},{"footnote":"<p class=\"p1\">The \u00bbradium girls\u00ab refers to hundreds of female factory workers who during World War I and afterward painted wristwatch dials with luminous radium paint. Many of them ingested traces of radium, which caused radiation-induced cancer and, in many cases, early death. One of these plants was located in Orange, New Jersey (now East Orange).<\/p>"},{"footnote":"<p class=\"p1\">\u00bbSuperfund\u00ab is a common name given in the United States to sites with hazardous pollutants or toxic-waste contamination, which are designated governmental funds for long-term clean-up operations.<\/p>"},{"footnote":"<p class=\"p1\">The Trinity nuclear test was conducted on July 16, 1945, by the United States Army as part of the Manhattan Project, or the research and development program for nuclear weapons during World War II. \u00bbDownwinders\u00ab is the term used to describe communities primarily in Arizona, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah, and other regions of the United States which were exposed to radioactive contamination or fallout due to this testing of nuclear weapons. The New Mexican downwinders were the first downwinders in history, but have not been covered under the federal Radiation Exposure Compensation Act of 1990.<\/p>"},{"footnote":"<p class=\"p1\">The White Sands Testing Facility has been in operation since 1963 and is used by NASA and the U.S. Department of Defense for evaluating hazardous materials, space flight components, and rocket propulsion systems located near Alamogordo, New Mexico.<\/p>"},{"footnote":"<p class=\"p1\">For more information on this project by Chim\u2191Pom, visit http:\/\/dontfollowthewind.info (accessed May 5, 2021).<\/p>"}]},{"acf_fc_layout":"content_txt","acfe_flexible_layout_title":"Text","bgcolor":"","bgcolor_custom":"","layout_col_size":8,"txt_cols":"is-1-txtcol","txt":"<h3><span class=\"has-font-maison-neue\" style=\"font-family: 'Maison Neue';\"><strong>Cepas mutantes, rayos mutantes y estados mutantes: <\/strong><strong>Una conversaci\u00f3n entre Luis Campos y Ana Mar\u00eda G\u00f3mez L\u00f3pez<\/strong><\/span><\/h3>"},{"acf_fc_layout":"content_img","acfe_flexible_layout_title":"Bild(er)","bgcolor":"","bgcolor_custom":"","layout_col_size":6,"img_gallery":false,"img":[30196],"img_gallery_format":""},{"acf_fc_layout":"content_txt","acfe_flexible_layout_title":"Text","bgcolor":"","bgcolor_custom":"","layout_col_size":8,"txt_cols":"is-1-txtcol","txt":"<strong><span class=\"has-font-maison-neue\" style=\"font-family: 'Maison Neue';\">En el momento en que se realiz\u00f3 esta entrevista, las nuevas mutaciones virales (P.1, B1.17, B1.351, 501.V2) relacionadas con la pandemia existente de SARS-CoV-2 acaparaban los titulares de todo el mundo. Si el 2020 y el 2021 hubiesen sido a\u00f1os diferentes, Luis Campos, profesor adjunto de Historia de la Ciencia en la Universidad de Nuevo M\u00e9xico, habr\u00eda coincidido con la residencia tem\u00e1tica interdisciplinar \u00abMutations\u00bb (\u00abMutaciones\u00bb) en la Akademie Schloss Solitude, as\u00ed como con Ana Mar\u00eda G\u00f3mez L\u00f3pez. La siguiente entrevista, fiel al tema de la residencia y al formato telem\u00e1tico en que se llev\u00f3 a cabo, contiene reflexiones que, en lugar de haber surgido en conversaciones a las afueras de Stuttgart, discurrieron a trav\u00e9s de plataformas en l\u00ednea y correos electr\u00f3nicos a medida que el SARS-CoV-2 adquir\u00eda nuevas formas y continuaba determinando las pol\u00edticas de salud p\u00fablica, medidas de restricci\u00f3n social y campa\u00f1as de vacunaci\u00f3n de todo el mundo.<\/span><\/strong>\r\n\r\nPocas personas pueden hablar del tema de las mutaciones en t\u00e9rminos conceptuales y disciplinarios tan amplios como el profesor Campos. Formado como bi\u00f3logo e historiador, sus estudios incluyen los diversos enfoques y definiciones de la \u00abmutaci\u00f3n\u00bb, desde la historia temprana de la herencia y la aparici\u00f3n del campo de la gen\u00e9tica hasta los futuros especulativos paralelos de la mutaci\u00f3n concebidos por la biolog\u00eda sint\u00e9tica y la astrobiolog\u00eda. Entre 2016 y 2017, ocup\u00f3 la c\u00e1tedra de Astrobiolog\u00eda Baruch S. Blumberg de la NASA y la Biblioteca del Congreso en el Centro John W. Kluge, en la Biblioteca del Congreso de Washington, D.C. En la actualidad, es secretario de la Sociedad de Historia de la Ciencia de EE. UU. y profesor adjunto de Historia de la Ciencia en la Universidad de Nuevo M\u00e9xico. Su \u00faltima publicaci\u00f3n es el volumen coeditado <em>Nature Remade: Engineering Life, Envisioning Worlds<\/em> (\u00abLa naturaleza, reconstruida: redise\u00f1ando la vida, imaginando mundos\u00bb)<em>, <\/em>que ser\u00e1 presentado por la University of Chicago Press en julio de 2021. Su pr\u00f3ximo libro trata sobre la historia de las intersecciones entre la biolog\u00eda sint\u00e9tica y la astrobiolog\u00eda, dos campos que exploran los futuros definitivos de la mutaci\u00f3n y la naturaleza de \u00abla vida como podr\u00eda ser\u00bb.\r\n\r\n<em><strong>Ana Mar\u00eda G\u00f3mez L\u00f3pez:<\/strong> Me gustar\u00eda empezar nuestra conversaci\u00f3n hablando sobre la \u00abmirada mutante\u00bb, una frase que usa en su art\u00edculo \u00abMutant Sexuality: The Private Life of a Plant\u00bb (\u00abSexualidad mutante: la vida privada de una planta\u00bb) acerca del bot\u00e1nico neerland\u00e9s Hugo de Vries<sup class=\"is-footnote\">1<\/sup>. Me encant\u00f3 leer su descripci\u00f3n hist\u00f3rica de las mutaciones, en la que la unidad de an\u00e1lisis no solo era el gen o el organismo, sino la misma corporeidad del cient\u00edfico. Por supuesto, para usted se trata de algo natural, pero yo lo le\u00ed cuando la historia de la ciencia y los estudios sociales sobre ciencia y tecnolog\u00eda todav\u00eda eran algo relativamente nuevo para m\u00ed. Me impresion\u00f3 much\u00edsimo la idea de que no podemos separar el cuerpo f\u00edsico del cient\u00edfico de su corpus de trabajo, y que la corporeidad subjetiva de una persona es el punto de partida para comprender c\u00f3mo dicha persona hace ciencia (o crea arte, como en mi caso<sup class=\"is-footnote\">2<\/sup>).<\/em>\r\n\r\n<strong>Luis Campos:<\/strong> Veo que aqu\u00ed ha destacado dos temas. Uno es la visi\u00f3n y la habilidad fundamental de reconocer mutaciones en una nueva especie. Cuando de Vries estudi\u00f3 la <em>Oenothera lamarckiana<\/em>, u onagra de Lamarck, encontr\u00f3 un organismo cuyas peculiaridades le llevaron a definir por primera vez el t\u00e9rmino \u00abmutante\u00bb. Ten\u00eda que empezar con una afirmaci\u00f3n (\u00abesta es una nueva especie que tiene caracter\u00edsticas particulares y se reproduce de forma consistente en las generaciones posteriores\u00bb) que fuera accesible a otros a nivel visual. Este car\u00e1cter visual de la \u00abmirada mutante\u00bb era importante a la hora de establecer, ante todo, la intersubjetividad compartida de la categor\u00eda de \u00abmutaci\u00f3n\u00bb. Hay una naturaleza que podemos descubrir y de la cual podemos aprender cosas nuevas.\r\n\r\nPor otro lado, c\u00f3mo combinamos nuestras observaciones sobre la naturaleza en una nueva comprensi\u00f3n es un acto sint\u00e9tico: inventamos t\u00e9rminos y conceptos nuevos para lidiar con nuestras observaciones y experiencias, por lo que nuestra propia humanidad e identidad como cient\u00edficos puede resultar relevante para el tipo de comprensi\u00f3n de la naturaleza que desarrollamos. Nuestra comprensi\u00f3n acerca de la naturaleza del mundo podr\u00eda tener algo que ver con nuestra identidad como cient\u00edficos. Esta era una cuesti\u00f3n que quer\u00eda explorar en ese art\u00edculo, pero de una forma nueva que no hab\u00eda visto hasta el momento. Los estudios de d\u00e9cadas anteriores ya hab\u00edan examinado c\u00f3mo importaba la condici\u00f3n de cient\u00edfico, por ejemplo, en cuanto al acceso a materiales, la disponibilidad de tiempo de trabajo, la posici\u00f3n de una persona en la academia o fuera de ella, o el privilegio del estatus de caballero. C\u00f3mo surgi\u00f3 el laboratorio moderno o c\u00f3mo surgi\u00f3 el art\u00edculo cient\u00edfico moderno a partir de la correspondencia entre caballeros que confiaban el uno en la palabra del otro son algunos elementos que proporcionan los fundamentos para comprender la ciencia como pr\u00e1ctica, como una disciplina basada en la clase social y que, en aspectos importantes, est\u00e1 caracterizada fundamentalmente por su naturaleza social. Otros han sugerido que el sexo y la raza tienen una influencia igual de clara en la naturaleza de lo que la ciencia llega a conocer; que es importante para comprender la historia del desarrollo de las teor\u00edas de la ciencia de la raza, por ejemplo, que son cient\u00edficos europeos que viven en un sistema pol\u00edtico espec\u00edfico, con acceso imperial relacionado con sistemas de colonialismo y extracci\u00f3n de recursos, quienes est\u00e1n construyendo nuevas comprensiones de la historia natural, de la diversidad humana, de las diferencias sexuales. La raza, la clase y el sexo son las categor\u00edas est\u00e1ndar que los historiadores de la ciencia han tratado de incluir a la hora de comprender la construcci\u00f3n del conocimiento cient\u00edfico del mundo natural.\r\n\r\nEstos esfuerzos me inspiraron, pero pronto me di cuenta de que lo que nos faltaba a modo de lente anal\u00edtica en la historia de la ciencia es otra categor\u00eda fundamental de la identidad humana, a la que hoy en d\u00eda nos referimos como orientaci\u00f3n sexual. Ten\u00eda curiosidad por saber si las relaciones personales o privadas de un cient\u00edfico podr\u00edan ser \u00fatiles de alguna forma para entender el tipo de trabajo cient\u00edfico que realizaba. Y cuando me top\u00e9 con el caso de Hugo de Vries y su descubrimiento de la mutaci\u00f3n en la onagra, una plantita <em>queer<\/em> con un reparto de caracteres secundarios <em>queer<\/em> (aprend\u00ed mucho sobre la vida personal de de Vries y la de muchos de sus amigos y seguidores), me pareci\u00f3 una oportunidad fant\u00e1stica para ampliar los l\u00edmites de la historia de la ciencia. \u00bfPodr\u00eda ser la sexualidad una herramienta \u00fatil para comprender la historia de la mutaci\u00f3n? \u00bfAcaso importa si un cient\u00edfico <em>queer<\/em> estudia el comportamiento reproductivo de una planta cuyo comportamiento, a primera vista, no encaja con las expectativas b\u00e1sicas del mendelismo<sup class=\"is-footnote\">3<\/sup>?\r\n\r\n<a href=\"#_ftnref1\" name=\"_ftn1\"><\/a>"},{"acf_fc_layout":"content_img","acfe_flexible_layout_title":"Bild(er)","bgcolor":"","bgcolor_custom":"","layout_col_size":6,"img_gallery":false,"img":[30198],"img_gallery_format":""},{"acf_fc_layout":"content_txt","acfe_flexible_layout_title":"Text","bgcolor":"","bgcolor_custom":"","layout_col_size":8,"txt_cols":"is-1-txtcol","txt":"Para realizar esta tarea, tuve que formarme en las competencias de aquellos que est\u00e1n familiarizados con los desaf\u00edos de la historia <em>queer<\/em>: sus silencios, su lenguaje codificado y, a menudo, la misma ausencia de pruebas de vidas <em>queer<\/em>. Cuando las cartas se queman o se destruyen, o simplemente no existen, los historiadores tienen que aprender a leer las fuentes hist\u00f3ricas e incluso cient\u00edficas a contracorriente para descubrir cosas que no estaban destinadas a conservarse o a saberse p\u00fablicamente. Esta labor tambi\u00e9n implicaba que ten\u00eda que ir m\u00e1s all\u00e1 de la historia de la herencia mendeliana est\u00e1ndar, centrarme en una planta en concreto (la onagra), cuyas formas de reproducci\u00f3n algunos cient\u00edficos consideraron tan \u00ababerrantes\u00bb o \u00abdegeneradas\u00bb que, a veces, incluyo calificaron el comportamiento de sus cromosomas como \u00ab<em>queer<\/em>\u00bb. En esa \u00e9poca, este lenguaje no estaba limitado a las plantas, y me empec\u00e9 a cuestionar el solapamiento discursivo entre la sexualidad de las plantas y las personas. A pesar de que la calificaran de \u00abdegenerada\u00bb por tener un sistema de intercambio cromos\u00f3mico que produc\u00eda patrones hereditarios y novedades a nivel de variaci\u00f3n que no se pod\u00edan explicar mediante cambios en los genes, la onagra tiene un gran \u00e9xito evolutivo. Si el comportamiento reproductivo de la onagra no pod\u00eda encajar dentro del mendelismo tradicional, que, con los avances en la citolog\u00eda, comenz\u00f3 a implicar la relaci\u00f3n de un progenitor con un cromosoma sexual, empec\u00e9 a plantearme si el mendelismo mismo era heteronormativo. \u00bfHab\u00edamos introducido ideas de comienzos del siglo XX acerca de la \u00abdegeneraci\u00f3n\u00bb de la diversidad de orientaciones sexuales en nuestra comprensi\u00f3n de la variedad de sistemas hereditarios en la biolog\u00eda? Explorar la historia de la mutaci\u00f3n mediante la exploraci\u00f3n la vida privada de una planta me llev\u00f3 hasta y a trav\u00e9s de la vida privada de las personas que la estudiaron. Y lo que hab\u00eda sido una corazonada qued\u00f3 patente: no se trataba \u00fanicamente de una conexi\u00f3n que yo estaba estableciendo; tambi\u00e9n era una conexi\u00f3n clara y obvia para los propios actores hist\u00f3ricos.\r\n\r\nComo historiador de la evoluci\u00f3n, la restricci\u00f3n y la contingencia, he llegado a ver c\u00f3mo las teor\u00edas biol\u00f3gicas sobre la herencia que hemos heredado estaban ineludiblemente ligadas a la naturaleza viva y, sin embargo, por completo relacionadas con nuestro enfoque antropoc\u00e9ntrico y nuestras corporeidades subjetivas. Comenc\u00e9 a visualizar c\u00f3mo podr\u00eda ser otro tipo de comprensi\u00f3n de la herencia, de la reproducci\u00f3n y de sus implicaciones evolutivas; c\u00f3mo la misma aparici\u00f3n de nuestra idea moderna de mutaci\u00f3n podr\u00eda poner en tela de juicio las propias categor\u00edas de \u00absexo\u00bb y \u00abespecie\u00bb. (\u00bfSi la aparici\u00f3n de una nueva variedad de planta en el jard\u00edn de alguien est\u00e1 relacionada con todo un anillo de cromosomas entrelazados que se transmiten a una c\u00e9lula hija u otra, estamos hablando de una nueva especie o de un nuevo sexo?) Esta \u00abmirada mutante\u00bb podr\u00eda hacer aflorar nuevas formas de entender la historia de la biolog\u00eda y las interrelaciones entre especies de plantas y personas.\r\n\r\nTrazar resonancias entre mundos en apariencia diferentes es un tipo de m\u00e9todo asociativo situado en el seno de mi pr\u00e1ctica hist\u00f3rica, y algo que tengo en com\u00fan con algunas variedades de la pr\u00e1ctica art\u00edstica. En mi trabajo previo sobre la historia de la biolog\u00eda, por ejemplo, explor\u00e9 la poderosa resonancia metaf\u00f3rica entre la radioactividad y el fen\u00f3meno de la vida, y c\u00f3mo los movimientos conceptuales y ret\u00f3ricos entre estos dos campos que parecen tan dispares no solo inspiraron, sino que incluso afectaron directamente a la interpretaci\u00f3n de los propios resultados experimentales. Las met\u00e1foras importaban. Al parecer, la \u00abtransmutaci\u00f3n\u00bb de elementos radioactivos y la \u00abmutaci\u00f3n\u00bb de especies no solo eran an\u00e1logas en el plano mental, sino tambi\u00e9n en las declaraciones y las pr\u00e1cticas experimentales de mis cient\u00edficos hist\u00f3ricos, y se entrecruzaban de formas provocativas y productivas en los albores de la gen\u00e9tica. Llegu\u00e9 a comprender que nuestra propia idea de la naturaleza y las propiedades de un \u00abgen\u00bb surg\u00edan del seno de esta resonancia. Y estaba claro que nuestra comprensi\u00f3n del \u00abgen\u00bb no se pod\u00eda separar de nuestras exploraciones de diferentes \u00abmutantes\u00bb. Hoy en d\u00eda, mientras nos vemos asediados por las nuevas variantes preocupantes de la pandemia del COVID-19, me choca el hecho de que, en un mundo de mutantes peligrosos, se hable de \u00abvariantes\u00bb. Incluso los mutantes pueden mutar.\r\n\r\n<em>Ana Mar\u00eda: Bueno, esto nos da la oportunidad de hablar de la actual pandemia del SARS-CoV-2, as\u00ed como para mencionar a uno de los contempor\u00e1neos de Hugo de Vries: el microbi\u00f3logo neerland\u00e9s Martinus Beijerinck<sup class=\"is-footnote\">4<\/sup>, a quien le debemos la palabra \u00abvirus\u00bb. La idea de definir o nombrar algo que uno no puede reconocer por completo, y mucho menos saber qu\u00e9 es lo que est\u00e1 buscando, parece estar muy presente aqu\u00ed.<\/em>\r\n\r\nLuis: S\u00ed, lo \u00abviral\u00bb como aquello que va m\u00e1s all\u00e1 de lo que podemos ver, o aquello que no podemos filtrar, \u00bfverdad? Como en el caso de Beijerinck, lo viral es aquello que no podemos identificar exactamente pero tenemos claro que causa una infecci\u00f3n. El virus es lo \u00aba\u00fan desconocido\u00bb.\r\n\r\nAna Mar\u00eda: Especialmente cuando hablamos de virus, a los que ni siquiera se reconoce como organismos biol\u00f3gicos ni se les concede la calificaci\u00f3n de estar \u00abvivos\u00bb, al menos desde la perspectiva de algunos cient\u00edficos. \u00bfC\u00f3mo entiende usted la idea de la \u00abmirada mutante\u00bb en nuestra experiencia colectiva del SARS-CoV-2?\r\n\r\nLuis: \u00a1Esa es una gran pregunta! Perm\u00edtame empezar hilando esta cuesti\u00f3n con la historia de la mutaci\u00f3n, con un momento unas pocas d\u00e9cadas m\u00e1s tarde en que la idea de mutaciones provocadas por la radiaci\u00f3n se convierte en algo generalizado despu\u00e9s de que se informara sobre unos experimentos realizados en 1927 por Hermann J. Muller, quien gan\u00f3 el premio Nobel por su trabajo acerca de las mutaciones en moscas de la fruta provocadas por rayos X<sup class=\"is-footnote\">5<\/sup>. Las posibilidades de nuevos mutantes creados por la radiaci\u00f3n ionizante se adoptaron en la ciencia ficci\u00f3n, y los mutantes, la idea de mutaci\u00f3n e incluso los \u00abrayos mutantes\u00bb comenzaron a hacer su aparici\u00f3n y extenderse por la literatura popular, incluyendo las revistas de ciencia ficci\u00f3n. La asociaci\u00f3n de la radiaci\u00f3n con la mutaci\u00f3n, con los superpoderes y los superhombres (piense en Superman y Spiderman) ten\u00eda peso en un mundo de la Guerra Fr\u00eda m\u00e1s intensamente radioactivo, en el que la carrera armament\u00edstica presagiaba nuevas formas mutantes de condenaci\u00f3n biol\u00f3gica. \u00abMutante\u00bb se convirti\u00f3 en un t\u00e9rmino popular a mediados de siglo, precisamente en la misma \u00e9poca en que la \u00ablluvia radioactiva\u00bb se convirti\u00f3 en un motivo de preocupaci\u00f3n popular tras las pruebas nucleares de Bravo en 1954<sup class=\"is-footnote\">6<\/sup>. Las respuestas culturales al miedo a la radiaci\u00f3n se intensificaron, as\u00ed como el miedo a nuevos mutantes peligrosos: la pel\u00edcula <em>Gojira<\/em> (\u00abGodzilla\u00bb) describe a un gran monstruo mutante que surge de las profundidades de un oc\u00e9ano Pac\u00edfico radioactivo como resultado de las pruebas con bombas nucleares. As\u00ed pues, en ese momento, a mediados de siglo, \u00abmutante\u00bb no es solo un t\u00e9rmino t\u00e9cnico y cient\u00edfico, sino uno que tambi\u00e9n contiene otros significados culturales: algo que da miedo, pero con lo que todav\u00eda se puede jugar, y que se puede usar en el \u00e1mbito de los c\u00f3mics, la ciencia ficci\u00f3n o el cine."},{"acf_fc_layout":"content_img","acfe_flexible_layout_title":"Bild(er)","bgcolor":"","bgcolor_custom":"","layout_col_size":6,"img_gallery":false,"img":[30200],"img_gallery_format":""},{"acf_fc_layout":"content_txt","acfe_flexible_layout_title":"Text","bgcolor":"","bgcolor_custom":"","layout_col_size":8,"txt_cols":"is-1-txtcol","txt":"Lo que me parece intrigante acerca del momento que estamos viviendo en particular, al ver cada d\u00eda las noticias, es que estamos hablando de mutaciones de un virus y, sin embargo, rara vez se emplea este t\u00e9rmino, al menos en los informativos estadounidenses que yo he estado escuchando. En su lugar, se refieren a las mutaciones como \u00abvariantes\u00bb. Es algo extra\u00f1o. \u00bfPor qu\u00e9 se prefiere usar la palabra \u00abvariante\u00bb? \u00bfAcaso \u00abmutante\u00bb genera tanto miedo que se debe evitar en los mensajes p\u00fablicos? En el presente, en una \u00e9poca post-Chern\u00f3bil, \u00bfsuena la palabra \u00abmutaci\u00f3n\u00bb como algo que est\u00e1 fuera de control o que no se puede controlar, que da miedo, que es peligroso, que nos hace pensar en el c\u00e1ncer y otras enfermedades preocupantes hasta tal punto que incluso nuestra lengua particular actual evita referirse a mutaciones virales a prop\u00f3sito? \u00bfEs esta una forma de gestionar tanto la pandemia como la preocupaci\u00f3n por su evoluci\u00f3n? Me puedo imaginar una nueva pregunta del historiador del momento presente: \u00bfcu\u00e1l es la historia de la \u00abvariante\u00bb? \u00bfDe d\u00f3nde procede este discurso de variantes? \u00bfY c\u00f3mo se est\u00e1 implementando en este momento? Existe una historia de la variaci\u00f3n como una propiedad estad\u00edstica que se puede solapar con la historia de la mutaci\u00f3n. \u00bfPero qu\u00e9 es lo que est\u00e1 ocurriendo ahora, entre el principio del milenio y la d\u00e9cada de 2020, digamos, para que hoy en d\u00eda se prefiera el t\u00e9rmino \u00abvariante\u00bb? Tener corazonadas puede ser una herramienta creativa \u00fatil para un acad\u00e9mico, un punto de partida para seguir investigando. Y, de hecho, as\u00ed es exactamente como comenz\u00f3 mi anterior proyecto, cuando empec\u00e9 a examinar las resonancias inesperadas entre la transmutaci\u00f3n y la mutaci\u00f3n, o la vida privada de una planta (y de aquellos que la estudiaron) y la vida p\u00fablica de la \u00abmutaci\u00f3n\u00bb en una cultura m\u00e1s amplia. Podemos poner nuestra mirada mutante al servicio de las variantes preocupantes de nuestro mundo actual y descubrir nuevos significados en nuestro discurso."},{"acf_fc_layout":"content_img","acfe_flexible_layout_title":"Bild(er)","bgcolor":"","bgcolor_custom":"","layout_col_size":6,"img_gallery":false,"img":[30208],"img_gallery_format":""},{"acf_fc_layout":"content_txt","acfe_flexible_layout_title":"Text","bgcolor":"","bgcolor_custom":"","layout_col_size":8,"txt_cols":"is-1-txtcol","txt":"Ana Mar\u00eda: Volviendo a uno de los elementos m\u00e1s fascinantes de su libro <em>Radium and the Secret of Life <\/em>(\u00abEl radio y el secreto de la vida\u00bb) (University of Chicago Press, 2015), as\u00ed como a algunos de sus art\u00edculos previos: al situar las mutaciones m\u00e1s all\u00e1 de una historia estrictamente \u00abg\u00e9nica\u00bb o \u00abcentrada en los genes\u00bb, es incre\u00edble ver lo dominante que se ha vuelto la definici\u00f3n de mutaci\u00f3n como una alteraci\u00f3n en una secuencia de ADN (ya sea nuclear o viral), a pesar de contar con menos de un siglo de antig\u00fcedad.\r\n\r\nLuis: Uno de mis experimentos narrativos en <em>Radium and the Secret of Life<\/em> fue tomar la especificidad de lo que significa un t\u00e9rmino cient\u00edfico y c\u00f3mo funciona como herramienta para los cient\u00edficos y acaba transformando su propio significado de modos extra\u00f1os e inesperados, y ver si pod\u00eda usar esa cuesti\u00f3n de forma paralela para desarrollar reflexiones nuevas y sorprendentes en mi propio trabajo como historiador. Frente a la polivalencia del t\u00e9rmino \u00abmutaci\u00f3n\u00bb a principios del siglo XX, vi c\u00f3mo su significado se fue estrechando en las d\u00e9cadas sucesivas hasta que acab\u00f3 significando una mutaci\u00f3n \u00abg\u00e9nica\u00bb y se perdi\u00f3 el papel central de la onagra, cuyo comportamiento hereditario se alojaba en el seno de la propia aparici\u00f3n de la idea de mutaci\u00f3n, y que se estudi\u00f3 sin apenas ninguna referencia a los genes en absoluto. Al descubrir esta historia de los m\u00faltiples significados previos y olvidados de \u00abmutaci\u00f3n\u00bb, pude recuperar y revivir definiciones anteriores que se hab\u00edan vuelto inservibles; comprensiones alternativas que revelaban una historia de la mutaci\u00f3n mucho m\u00e1s amplia, m\u00e1s disputada y, al fin y al cabo, m\u00e1s abierta. Y cuanto m\u00e1s retrocedemos desde nuestra comprensi\u00f3n contempor\u00e1nea de mutaci\u00f3n, m\u00e1s extra\u00f1as se vuelven estas asociaciones. Cosas que antes se llamaban \u00abmutaciones\u00bb nunca se denominar\u00edan as\u00ed hoy en d\u00eda. Y, sin embargo, sabemos que la historia que hizo que estas asociaciones y nuestro significado de la palabra mutaci\u00f3n sean posibles en el presente fue tambi\u00e9n la que hizo que estas alternativas previas pareciesen m\u00e1s y m\u00e1s raras con el tiempo.\r\n\r\nAs\u00ed que, para m\u00ed, no se trata tanto de un proyecto conceptual que parte de lo que pensamos del t\u00e9rmino cient\u00edfico en la actualidad o que empieza por imaginar otras posibilidades y significados de un t\u00e9rmino. Eso lo pueden hacer muchas personas de otros \u00e1mbitos, como los artistas, de un modo muy productivo y generando un efecto muy interesante. En su lugar, como historiador, a medida que voy retrocediendo en el tiempo, persigo un objetivo ligeramente diferente, aunque con herramientas similares. Puedo revelar c\u00f3mo se origin\u00f3 un significado reductivo para entender no solo c\u00f3mo fue cambiando este significado con el paso del tiempo, sino tambi\u00e9n lo que se perdi\u00f3 en su construcci\u00f3n. Puedo explorar c\u00f3mo las dimensiones sociales se integran en el significado de un t\u00e9rmino cient\u00edfico; es decir, que cuando la gente llama a una planta \u00abdegenerada\u00bb o \u00ab<em>queer<\/em>\u00bb, esto tiene un significado m\u00e1s all\u00e1 de lo meramente biol\u00f3gico. O que nuestra misma creencia de que la \u00abmutaci\u00f3n\u00bb tiene un significado esencialmente g\u00e9nico o hereditario en lugar de otros posibles significados; que, cuando se habla de una comprensi\u00f3n alternativa de la mutaci\u00f3n que no solo se refiere a un cambio g\u00e9nico, sino a un anillo cromos\u00f3mico entrelazado, como ocurre en el caso de la <em>Oenothera<\/em>, esta comprensi\u00f3n hist\u00f3rica del significado de \u00abmutaci\u00f3n\u00bb puede poner en tela de juicio no solo nuestra comprensi\u00f3n de la estabilidad de la herencia (y de una planta cuyos mecanismos reproductivos no se pueden englobar f\u00e1cilmente dentro de los principios del mendelismo), sino que incluso puede cuestionar nuestra propia comprensi\u00f3n de la distinci\u00f3n entre \u00abespecies\u00bb y \u00absexo\u00bb. Hemos perdido esas historias alternativas de la biolog\u00eda, que no son ficciones inventadas, sino solamente posibles comprensiones antiguas. Se han perdido a trav\u00e9s de las limitaciones de la contingencia hist\u00f3rica. Comprender c\u00f3mo se ha vuelto tan restringido el significado de mutaci\u00f3n podr\u00eda ayudarnos a concebir y explorar nuevas formas de estudiar el significado de variaci\u00f3n en la actualidad, en este mundo tan turbio y emp\u00edrico, en el que la aparici\u00f3n de un tipo de claridad conceptual solo es un posible resultado de un forcejeo epistemol\u00f3gico con toda la floreciente y ruidosa confusi\u00f3n que nos rodea.\r\n\r\nLa labor del historiador consiste en descubrir los significados que estaban presentes en el pasado y mostrar que, a pesar de que parecen distar de nuestra comprensi\u00f3n actual, podr\u00edan ofrecernos formas diferentes y novedosas de entender c\u00f3mo funcionaba y funciona realmente la ciencia. En el caso de \u00abmutaci\u00f3n\u00bb, por ejemplo, el t\u00e9rmino se hizo un hueco en el lenguaje de la biolog\u00eda para describir el novedoso fen\u00f3meno de la herencia, incluso cuando sus asociaciones con la transformaci\u00f3n, la evoluci\u00f3n y la descendencia se emplearon para caracterizar el fen\u00f3meno de la radioactividad, reci\u00e9n descubierto (y para el cual todav\u00eda no exist\u00eda ning\u00fan lenguaje en aquel momento). Fue este tipo de transici\u00f3n entre los \u00e1mbitos de la producci\u00f3n cultural y cient\u00edfica, entre la f\u00edsica y la biolog\u00eda, entre la transmutaci\u00f3n y la mutaci\u00f3n, lo que llev\u00f3 a realizar experimentos provocadores y productivos con el radio. Una resonancia metaf\u00f3rica o asociaci\u00f3n conceptual entre el radio y la vida hizo surgir la posibilidad de realizar ciertos tipos de experimentos, e incluso el modo en que estos llegar\u00edan a interpretarse. Estas asociaciones lograron que relacionar el mundo de lo vivo con el mundo de lo radiactivo no solo resultase inventivo a nivel natural, sino tambi\u00e9n productivo a nivel cient\u00edfico."},{"acf_fc_layout":"content_img","acfe_flexible_layout_title":"Bild(er)","bgcolor":"","bgcolor_custom":"","layout_col_size":6,"img_gallery":false,"img":[30204],"img_gallery_format":""},{"acf_fc_layout":"content_txt","acfe_flexible_layout_title":"Text","bgcolor":"","bgcolor_custom":"","layout_col_size":8,"txt_cols":"is-1-txtcol","txt":"A\u00f1os despu\u00e9s, cuando los bi\u00f3logos comenzaron a hablar de los genes como fuerzas irradiantes que rehac\u00edan el mundo vivo a su alrededor, como lo hizo Muller, este lenguaje de radiaci\u00f3n brill\u00f3 a trav\u00e9s de una comprensi\u00f3n cient\u00edfica emergente de la acci\u00f3n de los genes, un legado radioactivo presente pero que, en ese momento, se hab\u00eda deteriorado en gran medida en nuestra comprensi\u00f3n de los mecanismos b\u00e1sicos de la biolog\u00eda molecular. Incluso cuando el significado de mutaci\u00f3n se restringi\u00f3, transport\u00f3 esos legados radiactivos en el modo en que conceptualizamos los que son y lo que hacen los genes. As\u00ed que, a veces, podemos recuperar historias alternativas de la biolog\u00eda que se perdieron de forma contingente, pero en otras ocasiones podemos llegar a entender las formas contingentes en que un legado inesperado y poderoso se puede transmutar a lo largo de las d\u00e9cadas.\r\n\r\n<em>Ana Mar\u00eda: Tengo curiosidad por saber c\u00f3mo considera la permanencia hist\u00f3rica de la definici\u00f3n de mutaci\u00f3n, as\u00ed como los marcos conceptuales que la acompa\u00f1an, en su trabajo m\u00e1s reciente en el campo de la astrobiolog\u00eda. Este es un \u00e1mbito que me interesa mucho, precisamente porque expande nuestra compresi\u00f3n geoc\u00e9ntrica de las arquitecturas moleculares y las definiciones de \u00abvida\u00bb. Hace poco, entrevist\u00f3 a Steven Benner, un bioqu\u00edmico que aspira a crear formas an\u00e1logas de ADN y ARN que puedan respaldar el darwinismo pero que difieran de aquellas que se encuentran en la Tierra<sup class=\"is-footnote\">7<\/sup>. En esa entrevista mencion\u00f3 una cita de Muller, en la que afirma que en \u00abla habilidad del gen para reproducir mutaciones se encuentra el secreto m\u00e1s esencial de la vida misma, y de la materia viva en comparaci\u00f3n con la inerte\u00bb. Tambi\u00e9n explic\u00f3 que Muller fue un mentor temprano de Carl Sagan<sup class=\"is-footnote\">8<\/sup>, e incluso nos cont\u00f3 una bonita an\u00e9cdota en la que Sagan le entreg\u00f3 a Muller una tarjeta de cumplea\u00f1os con una fotograf\u00eda de Marte de aquella \u00e9poca, cubierta por un hilo que simbolizaba los hilos de los cromosomas de la vida, y una inscripci\u00f3n de Sagan con la frase: \u00abel hilo rojo se abre camino hacia arriba lentamente\u00bb. Lo explica con m\u00e1s detalle en su nuevo art\u00edculo \u00abLife as It Could Be<sup class=\"is-footnote\">9<\/sup>\u00bb (\u00abLa vida como podr\u00eda ser\u00bb).<\/em>\r\n\r\nLuis: Para un historiador, una corazonada es un lugar importante del que partir, pero encontrar una conexi\u00f3n gen\u00e9tica o geneal\u00f3gica real (una frase, una tarjeta, una inscripci\u00f3n\u2026) que convierte esa corazonada en una realidad hist\u00f3rica demostrable es uno de los momentos m\u00e1s hermosos para un historiador. El hecho de que Sagan fuese un disc\u00edpulo de Muller es algo genial e incre\u00edble por s\u00ed mismo: nos podemos imaginar las conexiones, as\u00ed como la resonancia y la yuxtaposici\u00f3n de combinar sus ideas y las implicaciones que esto tiene en t\u00e9rminos hist\u00f3ricos. Pero, en realidad, lo que es maravilloso es el hecho de encontrar ese \u00abhilo rojo\u00bb en concreto, una inscripci\u00f3n de un momento particular en el tiempo que atestigua una relaci\u00f3n profunda y duradera, necesaria para realizar el trabajo que un historiador requiere para un argumento. En cierto sentido, yo ya me imagin\u00e9 y prev\u00ed dicha conexi\u00f3n (me la invent\u00e9 antes de saber que estaba ah\u00ed), pero entonces fui en su busca y finalmente la encontr\u00e9. Los historiadores pueden partir de una invenci\u00f3n, pero deben terminar con un descubrimiento.\r\n\r\nEsta tensi\u00f3n entre la invenci\u00f3n y el descubrimiento es tanto un elemento de la ciencia como de la historia. Y las maneras en que se realiza una buena labor de ciencia en esta intersecci\u00f3n entre la invenci\u00f3n y el descubrimiento es lo que quiero explorar en mi pr\u00f3ximo trabajo, sobre las historias interrelacionadas de la ingenier\u00eda de la vida y de encontrarla en otros lugares; de la biolog\u00eda sint\u00e9tica, por un lado, y la astrobiolog\u00eda, por otro. Del mismo modo que explor\u00e9 el caso del radio, quiero seguir esas resonancias tan potentes y profundas, y, m\u00e1s que simplemente sugerirlas, establecerlas con pruebas irrefutables. \u00bfMe he inventado la asociaci\u00f3n? \u00bfO est\u00e1 en mis fuentes? La respuesta es ambas, siempre que pueda entretejer estas pruebas con una narraci\u00f3n lo suficientemente convincente que describa algo nuevo y demostrable acerca de la historia del desarrollo de una ciencia. Ya lo hice con el radio y la vida, y con la onagra y la mutaci\u00f3n y la sexualidad, y espero hacer algo similar tambi\u00e9n con esta intersecci\u00f3n.\r\n\r\nEl hecho de que la ingenier\u00eda de la vida en la Tierra pueda ser muy relevante a la hora de considerar c\u00f3mo podr\u00eda haber surgido la vida de forma natural en otros mundos, por tanto, no solo es una posibilidad conceptual o intuici\u00f3n; es un desaf\u00edo que se debe demostrar hist\u00f3ricamente. A medida que empec\u00e9 a organizar las pruebas que hab\u00eda podido encontrar, empez\u00f3 a cobrar una gran importancia descubrir, por ejemplo, que Muller hab\u00eda imaginado futuros para la ingenier\u00eda de la vida en la Tierra al tiempo que le\u00eda ciencia ficci\u00f3n y acud\u00eda a congresos de ciencia ficci\u00f3n con Carl Sagan. Est\u00e1 claro que las ideas de Sagan acerca de la vida en otros lugares, el tema por el que m\u00e1s se le conoce hoy en d\u00eda, no surgieron de la nada: en una parte considerable, se originaron a partir de estas conversaciones con Muller. Para mediados de siglo, las ideas acerca de la ingenier\u00eda de la vida y su existencia alternativa natural en otros lugares dejaron de ser cuestiones completamente independientes. Para Muller, el gen era una realidad biol\u00f3gica y una herramienta conceptual, una unidad capaz de autorreplicarse, as\u00ed como una entidad reproductiva abstracta que estructur\u00f3 la forma en que \u00e9l pensaba acerca de la vida, tanto en nuestro planeta como m\u00e1s all\u00e1. Y esto encajaba de forma sorprendente con lo que Sagan desarroll\u00f3 m\u00e1s tarde en la astrobiolog\u00eda. A ambos les interesaban profundamente algunas cuestiones que hoy en d\u00eda podr\u00edamos enmarcar dentro de un discurso m\u00e1s amplio acerca de la habitabilidad: \u00bfpodr\u00edan vivir los humanos en un mundo asolado por la radiaci\u00f3n? \u00bfPodr\u00edan vivir en otro lugar? \u00bfY podr\u00eda hacerlo otro ser vivo?\r\n\r\n<em>Ana Mar\u00eda: Lo que resulta fascinante es que esto estaba ocurriendo al mismo tiempo que se cuestionaba la gen\u00e9tica mendeliana en otras partes del mundo, como en la Uni\u00f3n Sovi\u00e9tica con el lysenko\u00edsmo, por ejemplo. Asimismo, algunos cient\u00edficos sovi\u00e9ticos estaban definiendo la astrobiolog\u00eda, como Gavriil Adri\u00e1novich T\u00edjov, que fue capaz de imaginar la vegetaci\u00f3n en otros planetas y desarrollar m\u00e9todos para estudiarla tan solo mediante el estudio de las plantas vasculares<sup class=\"is-footnote\">10<\/sup>.<\/em>\r\n\r\nLuis: As\u00ed es. En un art\u00edculo que escrib\u00ed para un compendio sobre el legado del lysenko\u00edsmo<sup class=\"is-footnote\">11<\/sup>, denominado \u00abDialectics Denied\u00bb (\u00abDial\u00e9ctica denegada\u00bb), suger\u00ed que la estructura geopol\u00edtica del mundo de la Guerra Fr\u00eda tambi\u00e9n podr\u00eda formar parte de la historia de la restricci\u00f3n del significado cient\u00edfico de la palabra \u00abmutaci\u00f3n\u00bb y la p\u00e9rdida de un nivel intermedio de mutaci\u00f3n cromos\u00f3mica que era cada vez m\u00e1s problem\u00e1tico, no solo para los genetistas occidentales, sino tambi\u00e9n para los investigadores sovi\u00e9ticos. Para los lysenkoistas, debido a una serie de razones complejas relacionadas con las antiguas asociaciones entre los genetistas y los eugenistas, as\u00ed como el anticlericalismo del marxismo, el gen en s\u00ed mismo se entend\u00eda como una construcci\u00f3n ideol\u00f3gica del capitalismo<sup class=\"is-footnote\">12<\/sup>.\r\n\r\nPero la ideolog\u00eda no solo lleva a ficciones ilusorias; tambi\u00e9n se puede entender como un contexto generativo para la teorizaci\u00f3n cient\u00edfica. La comprensi\u00f3n de T\u00edjov de la astrobot\u00e1nica est\u00e1 directamente relacionada con su aplicaci\u00f3n de los principios del materialismo dial\u00e9ctico a la comprensi\u00f3n de la evoluci\u00f3n de la vida en el universo. Si entendemos que la vida ocurre en etapas progresivas que se predicen y se espera que sucedan en cualquier lugar en el que se den las condiciones adecuadas, es de esperar que haya vida en otros lugares, teoriz\u00f3 T\u00edjov. Y si esta vida surgiera en un planeta vecino, se plantea la siguiente pregunta: \u00bfc\u00f3mo podr\u00edamos buscarla? Esto llev\u00f3 a T\u00edjov a desarrollar m\u00e9todos de espectroscopia para estudiar la vegetaci\u00f3n de alta monta\u00f1a de Kazajist\u00e1n, as\u00ed como la vegetaci\u00f3n de alta monta\u00f1a de otros lugares, para visualizar (o especular; \u00a1qu\u00e9 met\u00e1foras m\u00e1s visuales!) c\u00f3mo podr\u00eda ayudarle eso a comprender lo que podr\u00eda estar viendo al observar la luz de Marte con un telescopio. Estaba estudiando la vida en Marte, pero no a trav\u00e9s de una herramienta gen\u00e9tica ni de la manipulaci\u00f3n directa de un organismo, sino con una herramienta meramente observacional y con la herramienta conceptual de la analog\u00eda. Consider\u00f3 partes de la Tierra como an\u00e1logas de Marte. D\u00e9cadas antes de Sagan, las teor\u00edas de T\u00edjov sobre las caracter\u00edsticas espectrosc\u00f3picas de la luz de otros mundos le llev\u00f3 a concluir que, si mir\u00e1semos la Tierra desde una gran distancia, esta aparecer\u00eda como un punto azul p\u00e1lido. (\u00a1Para hacer la conexi\u00f3n m\u00e1s obvia a\u00fan, la primera vez que me encontr\u00e9 con el trabajo de T\u00edjov fue a trav\u00e9s de una traducci\u00f3n encargada por Sagan!)\r\n\r\n<em>Ana Mar\u00eda: Me sorprende que poca gente sepa que esta frase, que se le suele atribuir a Sagan, en realidad se remonta a T\u00edjov, a quien estoy estudiando ahora en Rusia para un futuro proyecto. La primera vez que me top\u00e9 con \u00e9l fue a trav\u00e9s de mis propias investigaciones personales sobre Iv\u00e1n Yefr\u00e9mov, un paleont\u00f3logo sovi\u00e9tico que fue uno de los primeros en formular la recuperaci\u00f3n de vestigios f\u00f3siles de vida m\u00e1s all\u00e1 de la Tierra y que tambi\u00e9n fue un famoso escritor de ciencia ficci\u00f3n sobre viajes espaciales<sup class=\"is-footnote\">13<\/sup>.<\/em>\r\n\r\nLuis: Las intersecciones entre la ciencia ficci\u00f3n, el espacio, la paleontolog\u00eda y las perspectivas de la biolog\u00eda son un espacio fascinante. Hace poco cit\u00e9 a Yefr\u00e9mov y a su novela <em>La Nebulosa de Andr\u00f3meda<\/em> en una ponencia que di en la Asociaci\u00f3n Estadounidense para el Avance de la Ciencia sobre <em>La amenaza de Andr\u00f3meda<\/em> de Michael Crichton, una novela de ciencia ficci\u00f3n que hizo pensar en los potenciales peligros c\u00f3smicos de la ingenier\u00eda gen\u00e9tica a toda una generaci\u00f3n de bi\u00f3logos moleculares.<sup class=\"is-footnote\">14<\/sup> (Este libro, curiosamente, se inspira en una frase que Crichton oy\u00f3 decir a otro paleont\u00f3logo, George Gaylord Simpson, que afirm\u00f3 en un seminario de posgrado que podr\u00eda haber microorganismos que vivieran en lo alto de la atm\u00f3sfera.) En un cap\u00edtulo que voy a publicar, he escrito acerca de c\u00f3mo se tom\u00f3 <em>La amenaza de Andr\u00f3meda<\/em> y se hizo referencia a ella constantemente durante la conferencia de Asilomar de 1975 sobre los posibles riesgos biol\u00f3gicos de la investigaci\u00f3n con ADN recombinante<sup class=\"is-footnote\">15<\/sup>. Y las referencias a la novela siguen apareciendo hasta llegar a la cumbre, al Congreso de Estados Unidos y a la Oficina de Licencias de Tecnolog\u00eda de la Universidad de Standford, donde se habla de <em>La amenaza de Andr\u00f3meda<\/em> como un futuro que debemos evitar.\r\n\r\nEs en este tipo de circunstancias, donde yo trazo la l\u00ednea entre la ciencia y la ciencia ficci\u00f3n, que podemos llegar a entender que <em>La amenaza de Andr\u00f3meda<\/em> no solo es una obra de ciencia ficci\u00f3n, sino que desempe\u00f1a un papel clave en la autorizaci\u00f3n de futuros especulativos para nuevas innovaciones en tecnolog\u00edas gen\u00e9ticas. Una novela de ciencia ficci\u00f3n incluso puede cambiar el modo en que los cient\u00edficos mismos imaginan las perspectivas y posibilidades futuras de su campo y, m\u00e1s concretamente, hasta la legislaci\u00f3n federal que regula el uso de una nueva y potente tecnolog\u00eda de ingenier\u00eda gen\u00e9tica. Tambi\u00e9n me fijo en c\u00f3mo Andr\u00f3meda es la galaxia que nos sirve de paralelo, de manera muy similar a c\u00f3mo Marte act\u00faa como un an\u00e1logo de la Tierra. Asimismo, es fascinante ver c\u00f3mo <em>La amenaza de Andr\u00f3meda<\/em> recogi\u00f3 una tradici\u00f3n especulativa relacionada con la contaminaci\u00f3n en la exobiolog\u00eda que ya exist\u00eda desde hace varios a\u00f1os y, a continuaci\u00f3n, transform\u00f3 esta preocupaci\u00f3n en miedos de accidentes de laboratorio relacionados con el novedoso uso del ADN recombinante en la Tierra. La invenci\u00f3n de nuevas formas de vida en el laboratorio se inspir\u00f3 en imaginarios de la vida como podr\u00eda haber surgido en otro lugar; esa poderosa intersecci\u00f3n entre la biolog\u00eda sint\u00e9tica y la astrobiolog\u00eda, dos disciplinas que se dedican a \u00abla vida como podr\u00eda ser\u00bb.\r\n\r\n<em>Ana Mar\u00eda: En el contexto de la pandemia global actual, la idea de lo que puede pasar si los funcionarios del gobierno no toman las precauciones adecuadas en cuanto a las cepas del virus, que mutan con rapidez, coincide con y refleja algunos aspectos de La amenaza de Andr\u00f3meda, m\u00e1s all\u00e1 de los temores extraterrestres. Pero me llama la atenci\u00f3n que el lenguaje de la mutaci\u00f3n como un \u00abcontaminante\u00bb en el caso del SARS-CoV-2 presente una similitud, una que va de la mano de las ideas de su omnipresente transmisi\u00f3n por el aire, posible origen zoon\u00f3tico y continua velocidad de mutaci\u00f3n. Y, sin embargo, estas nociones del virus como un contaminante tambi\u00e9n apelan a cuestiones planetarias m\u00e1s amplias de contaminaci\u00f3n industrial y destrucci\u00f3n ecol\u00f3gica antropog\u00e9nica.<\/em>\r\n\r\nLuis: Esto me recuerda al caso de una f\u00e1brica relacionada con las llamadas \u00abchicas del radio\u00bb en Orange, Nueva Jersey, junto al Laboratorio y Parque Hist\u00f3rico Nacional Thomas Edison. La mutaci\u00f3n y la contaminaci\u00f3n no solo son met\u00e1foras, tambi\u00e9n son realidades muy tangibles y tr\u00e1gicas que acarrean consecuencias para nuestra salud<sup class=\"is-footnote\">16<\/sup>. Hace algunos a\u00f1os, estuve dando clases en Nueva Jersey, junto al emplazamiento de una antigua f\u00e1brica en la que pintaban relojes con radio. La f\u00e1brica se hab\u00eda demolido hac\u00eda mucho tiempo, y en su lugar hab\u00eda un simple campo de hierba cercado con una valla para no dejar pasar a la gente. Pero la zona estaba tan contaminada que se design\u00f3 como un sitio t\u00f3xico del Superfondo<sup class=\"is-footnote\">17<\/sup>, que segu\u00eda provocando problemas relacionados con el rad\u00f3n en los s\u00f3tanos de las casas circundantes. De manera que una gran poblaci\u00f3n de clase trabajadora estaba adquiriendo viviendas que ten\u00edan problemas de rad\u00f3n a causa de una f\u00e1brica que nadie sab\u00eda siquiera que hab\u00eda estado ah\u00ed. El a\u00f1o pasado, volv\u00ed a visitar la zona para echar un vistazo. Mientras que antes la valla hab\u00eda impedido el paso a los visitantes, ahora el lugar se hab\u00eda saneado y convertido en un campo de b\u00e9isbol. Incluso hab\u00eda un huerto y un centro de jardiner\u00eda en la acera de enfrente, aunque no cultivaban nada en la tierra local, sino que ten\u00edan arriates elevados con otro tipo de tierra en la que crec\u00edan las plantas. La contaminaci\u00f3n radioactiva del lugar es, literalmente, una historia subyacente que solo conocen (si acaso) los due\u00f1os de las casas de la zona. En cambio, es completamente invisible si uno pasa por all\u00ed conduciendo. Mientras que descubrir una historia oculta entre la biolog\u00eda sint\u00e9tica y la astrobiolog\u00eda, o entre Muller y Sagan, es algo estimulante y divertido, as\u00ed como un desaf\u00edo epistemol\u00f3gico a la forma en que a veces podemos pensar en la naturaleza de la ciencia o su historia, no todas las historias son divertidas. A veces resultan bastante t\u00f3xicas y peligrosas.\r\n\r\n<a href=\"#_ftnref1\" name=\"_ftn1\"><\/a>"},{"acf_fc_layout":"content_img","acfe_flexible_layout_title":"Bild(er)","bgcolor":"","bgcolor_custom":"","layout_col_size":6,"img_gallery":false,"img":[30208],"img_gallery_format":""},{"acf_fc_layout":"content_txt","acfe_flexible_layout_title":"Text","bgcolor":"","bgcolor_custom":"","layout_col_size":8,"txt_cols":"is-1-txtcol","txt":"En la actualidad estoy impartiendo un curso titulado \u00abAtomic America\u00bb (\u00abAm\u00e9rica at\u00f3mica\u00bb), en el que mis alumnos conocen a y aprenden de la l\u00edder de un grupo de \u00ab<em>downwinders<\/em>\u00bb, un colectivo activista que ha estado luchando por obtener reconocimiento federal e indemnizaciones para los habitantes de Nuevo M\u00e9xico que se encontraban en la direcci\u00f3n del viento (de ah\u00ed su nombre en ingl\u00e9s) respecto al emplazamiento de la prueba Trinity en 1945<sup class=\"is-footnote\">18<\/sup>. Nunca se les compens\u00f3 y, a pesar de haber sufrido efectos epidemiol\u00f3gicos durante generaciones, carecen de acceso a las protecciones e indemnizaciones federales, a diferencia de los <em>downwinders<\/em> de Utah, Nevada y otros lugares. La l\u00edder del grupo es una oradora muy potente que testific\u00f3 ante el Congreso la semana pasada. Se trata de un momento importante tras muchos a\u00f1os de acci\u00f3n comunitaria en los que ha tratado de llamar la atenci\u00f3n sobre su situaci\u00f3n. Una de sus alegaciones principales es que vivir con las secuelas radioactivas de Nuevo M\u00e9xico ha provocado un alto \u00edndice de c\u00e1nceres (a ella misma se le tuvo que extirpar la tiroides), y sugiere que existe una correlaci\u00f3n directa entre el plutonio que dispers\u00f3 por la regi\u00f3n la explosi\u00f3n de la primera bomba at\u00f3mica y dichas enfermedades. Cree que estos is\u00f3topos radiactivos y productos de fisi\u00f3n heredados se est\u00e1n revolviendo constantemente debido a los bombardeos convencionales que se siguen realizando en el mismo emplazamiento en que se produjo la primera explosi\u00f3n at\u00f3mica en el Campo de Misiles de Arenas Blancas<sup class=\"is-footnote\">19<\/sup>. Aunque la prueba Trinidad fue un evento puntual, argumenta, sus consecuencias han durado d\u00e9cadas para los residentes del estado. La vida media del plutonio es de 24 000 a\u00f1os. \u00bfQu\u00e9 supone tener contaminaci\u00f3n radioactiva que provoca problemas de salud para la gente que vive en un lugar tan desgarradoramente hermoso pero contaminado? \u00bfY c\u00f3mo podemos entender estos da\u00f1os bajo la perspectiva de la historia colonial a largo plazo de Nuevo M\u00e9xico, incluyendo su posterior colonizaci\u00f3n nuclear con el Proyecto Manhattan?\r\n\r\nEstas historias olvidadas suscitan preguntas importantes acerca de los real\u00edsimos efectos sobre la salud que se originan a partir de las desigualdades de privilegios, poder y acceso. Si llevamos a estos temas nuestra mirada mutante, tan personal y humana (e inhumana), descubrimos nuevas formas de entender c\u00f3mo nuestra propia corporeidad subjetiva, el estar sometidos a mutaciones provocadas por la radiaci\u00f3n que pueden causar c\u00e1ncer, puede ser otro punto de partida fuerte para comprender el lugar de la ciencia en nuestras vidas. Las mutaciones no son solo plantas raras en nuestros jardines, objetos de curiosidad que puedan inspirar una nueva teor\u00eda o conceptos cada vez m\u00e1s complicados que nos ayudan a caracterizar la naturaleza y las propiedades del gen. Las mutaciones son, en un sentido importante, inseparables de nuestra existencia como seres vivos en un mundo contaminado.\r\n\r\nAna Mar\u00eda: Estos testimonios multigeneracionales sobre los efectos persistentes de las mutaciones en las poblaciones vivas nos aportan un recordatorio muy real y doloroso de que la historia de la mutaci\u00f3n inducida por la radiaci\u00f3n en el laboratorio suele estar directamente relacionada con su experiencia paralela de experimentos letales, tanto en el laboratorio como sobre el terreno, que afectan a humanos y ecosistemas por igual. Es un lugar dif\u00edcil en el que terminar. Al pensar en los <em>downwinders<\/em>, no puedo sino citar al colectivo art\u00edstico Chim\u2191Pom, de Tokio, y su proyecto Don\u2019t Follow the Wind (\u00abNo sigas el viento\u00bb)<sup class=\"is-footnote\">20<\/sup>. Junto a otros artistas japoneses y de diferentes pa\u00edses, han creado, m\u00e1s que una \u00abexhibici\u00f3n\u00bb, una \u00abinhibici\u00f3n\u00bb en la zona de exclusi\u00f3n de Fukushima que solo podr\u00e1n visitar las personas que residan en la zona debido a la contaminaci\u00f3n radioactiva existente.\r\n\r\nLuis: S\u00ed. Creo que esto refleja de una forma bastante hermosa c\u00f3mo el pensamiento asociativo puede resultar \u00fatil no solo para identificar problemas, desvelar historias alternativas olvidadas, hacer un seguimiento de las restricciones, caracterizar cambios ideol\u00f3gicos y descubrir peligros que cre\u00edamos enterrados, como hago yo dentro de las limitaciones de la disciplina de la historia, sino tambi\u00e9n para indicar el camino hacia nuevas formas de pensar. Por eso valoro tanto trabajar con artistas y otras personas que participan en la ardua tarea de establecer estas conexiones, a menudo dif\u00edciles, y que encuentran y comparten con nosotros posibilidades de explorar y explicar la realidad completamente nuevas, y que consideran la corporeidad subjetiva no solo como una conclusi\u00f3n, sino como un punto de partida para la expresi\u00f3n art\u00edstica y para la expansi\u00f3n de nuestra mirada mutante.<a href=\"#_ftnref1\" name=\"_ftn1\"><\/a>"},{"acf_fc_layout":"content_footnotes","acfe_flexible_layout_title":"Fu\u00dfnoten","bgcolor":"","footnotes_list_hide_numbers":false,"footnotes":[{"footnote":"Hugo de Vries (1848 \u2013 1935) fue un bot\u00e1nico y genetista neerland\u00e9s que introdujo el t\u00e9rmino de \u00abmutaci\u00f3n\u00bb y desarroll\u00f3 una teor\u00eda mutacional de la evoluci\u00f3n bas\u00e1ndose en gran medida en sus estudios sobre la onagra (<em>Oenothera<\/em>). De Vries, considerado como uno de los \u00abredescubridores\u00bb del trabajo de Gregor Mendel, llev\u00f3 a cabo estudios hereditarios en plantas que, en algunos aspectos, confirmaron la labor de Mendel y, en otros, la cuestionaron profundamente, lo que ayud\u00f3 a consolidar la mutaci\u00f3n en el seno de lo que pronto se convertir\u00eda en la historia temprana de la gen\u00e9tica. V\u00e9ase Luis Campos, \u00abMutant Sexuality: The Private Life of a Plant\u00bb, en <em>Making Mutations: Objects, Practices, Contexts<\/em>, editado por Luis Campos y Alexander von Schwerin (Berl\u00edn: Max-Planck-Institut f\u00fcr Wissenschaftsgeschichte, 2010), p\u00e1gs. 49\u201370."},{"footnote":"Ana Mar\u00eda G\u00f3mez L\u00f3pez, <em>Inoculate: A Florilegium<\/em> (http:\/\/manual.vision) y <em>Vital Practices: Self-experimentation as Artistic and Scientific Form<\/em> (<a href=\"https:\/\/experiments.life\">https:\/\/experiments.life<\/a>)."},{"footnote":"Gregor Mendel (1822 \u2013 1884) fue un bot\u00e1nico y monje agustino de Brno (en aquella \u00e9poca Moravia, en la actualidad Rep\u00fablica Checa) y la primera persona que sent\u00f3 las bases matem\u00e1ticas de la gen\u00e9tica cl\u00e1sica mediante el cultivo de plantas de guisante (arveja) en experimentos sucesivos utilizando abejas de diferentes especies. El mendelismo hace referencia a sus principios relacionados con la herencia de rasgos monog\u00e9nicos."},{"footnote":"Martinus Beijerink (1851 \u2013 1931) fue un microbi\u00f3logo neerland\u00e9s y la primera persona en nombrar a los virus. Us\u00f3 el sustantivo latino <em>virus,<\/em> que significa veneno, para identificar a una sustancia invisible que pod\u00eda filtrarse a trav\u00e9s de una malla fina y se hab\u00eda constatado que hac\u00eda enfermar a las plantas de tabaco. Beijerinck afirm\u00f3 que el virus ten\u00eda una naturaleza algo l\u00edquida, por lo que lo llam\u00f3 <em>contagium vivum fluidum<\/em> (\u00abl\u00edquido vivo contagioso\u00bb). Puesto que era algo dif\u00edcil de analizar en aquella \u00e9poca, el <em>contagium vivum fluidum<\/em> languideci\u00f3 durante m\u00e1s de tres d\u00e9cadas antes de reaparecer como tema de estudio con el microscopio electr\u00f3nico de barrido."},{"footnote":"Hermann Joseph Muller (1876 \u2013 1931) fue un genetista estadounidense que estudi\u00f3 las caracter\u00edsticas hereditarias de la mosca del vinagre. Entre 1926 y 1927, descubri\u00f3 que la cantidad de mutaciones g\u00e9nicas observadas en las c\u00e9lulas de moscas del vinagre aumentaba cuando se las somet\u00eda a radiaciones ionizantes, por ejemplo rayos X. Este hallazgo le mereci\u00f3 el Premio Nobel de Fisiolog\u00eda o Medicina en 1946."},{"footnote":"Las pruebas Bravo fueron ensayos de energ\u00eda nuclear de alto alcance llevados a cabo por EE. UU. el 1 de marzo de 1954 en el atol\u00f3n Bikini, en las Islas Marshall, como parte de la operaci\u00f3n Castle. En el momento de la detonaci\u00f3n, Castle Bravo fue la mayor explosi\u00f3n nuclear de la historia"},{"footnote":"Luis Campos y Steven Benner, \u00abOther Genetic Alphabets\u00bb, (<em>Journal of Design and Science<\/em>, 2018). Obtenido de https:\/\/jods.mitpress.mit.edu\/pub\/issue4-campos-benner"},{"footnote":"Carl Sagan (1934 \u2013 1996) fue un astr\u00f3nomo y astrof\u00edsico estadounidense, as\u00ed como uno de los escritores y comunicadores cient\u00edficos m\u00e1s populares de su \u00e9poca. Es conocido por su serie documental de televisi\u00f3n <em>Cosmos<\/em> y su libro hom\u00f3nimo."},{"footnote":"Luis Campos, \u00abLife as It Could Be\u00bb, en <em>Social and Conceptual Issues in Astrobiology<\/em>, editado por Kelly C. Smith y Carlos Mariscal (Nueva York: Oxford University Press, 2020), p\u00e1gs. 101-115."},{"footnote":"Gavriil Adri\u00e1novich T\u00edjov (1875-1960) fue un bot\u00e1nico sovi\u00e9tico y uno de los primeros cient\u00edficos que se identific\u00f3 como astrobi\u00f3logo. Acu\u00f1\u00f3 el t\u00e9rmino \u00abastrobot\u00e1nica\u00bb en referencia a su postulaci\u00f3n especulativa de la vida extraterrestre, en especial la presencia de vegetaci\u00f3n en Marte. V\u00e9ase Luis Campos, \u00abBlue Vegetation on the Red Planet: Soviet Astrobotany and Earthly Analogues for Life on Mars\u00bb en <em>Anthropology Off Earth,<\/em> editado por Istvan Praet y Perig Pitrou (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), pr\u00f3ximo a publicarse."},{"footnote":"Trofim Lysenko (1898-1976) fue un agr\u00f3nomo y bi\u00f3logo sovi\u00e9tico que rechaz\u00f3 la gen\u00e9tica mendeliana y la selecci\u00f3n natural. Lider\u00f3 una campa\u00f1a de varias d\u00e9cadas que tuvo una enorme influencia en toda la Uni\u00f3n Sovi\u00e9tica y el Bloque del Este, y dio pie a una censura masiva y a la ejecuci\u00f3n de numerosos cient\u00edficos sovi\u00e9ticos disidentes."},{"footnote":"Luis Campos, \u00abDialectics Denied: Muller, Lysenkoism, and the Fate of Chromosomal Mutation\u00bb, en <em>The Lysenko Controversy as a Global Phenomenon<\/em> (Volumen 2), editado por William deJong-Lambert y Nikolai Krementsov. Palgrave Studies in the History of Science and Technology (Londres: Palgrave Macmillan), p\u00e1gs. 161-184."},{"footnote":"[1] Ana Mar\u00eda G\u00f3mez L\u00f3pez, \u00abIntergalactic lithospheres: Ivan Antonovitch Efremov at the Paleontological Institute in Moscow\u00bb. Centro de Museolog\u00eda Experimental<em>, <\/em>Mosc\u00fa: V-A-C Foundation (pr\u00f3ximo a publicarse). V\u00e9ase tambi\u00e9n un fragmento del cortometraje <em>Cosmos and Paleontology <\/em>(2020) en https:\/\/vimeo.com\/amgomezlopez."},{"footnote":"Luis Campos, \u00abStrains of Andromeda: The Cosmic Potential Hazards of Genetic Engineering\u00bb, en Campos et al., <em>Nature Remade: Engineering Life, Envisioning Worlds.<\/em> University of Chicago Press (2021), 151-72."},{"footnote":"La conferencia de Asilomar sobre el ADN recombinante se celebr\u00f3 en febrero de 1975 para debatir los posibles riesgos de la biotecnolog\u00eda. En ella se propusieron unas directrices voluntarias con el fin de garantizar la seguridad de la tecnolog\u00eda de ADN recombinante."},{"footnote":"Las \u00abchicas del radio\u00bb eran cientos de trabajadoras de f\u00e1bricas que, durante la Primera Guerra Mundial y tras esta, se dedicaron a pintar esferas de relojes con pintura luminiscente de radio. Muchas de ellas ingirieron trazas de radio, lo que provoc\u00f3 c\u00e1nceres inducidos por la radiaci\u00f3n y, en muchos casos, muertes prematuras. Una de estas instalaciones estaba situada en Orange, Nueva Jersey (ahora East Orange)."},{"footnote":"Superfondo o <em>Superfund<\/em> es el nombre con el que se denomina en Estados Unidos a los lugares con contaminantes peligrosos o contaminaci\u00f3n por residuos t\u00f3xicos a los que se destinan fondos gubernamentales para operaciones de limpieza a largo plazo."},{"footnote":"El ej\u00e9rcito de los Estados Unidos llev\u00f3 a cabo la prueba nuclear Trinity el 16 de julio de 1945 como parte del Proyecto Manhattan, es decir, el programa de investigaci\u00f3n y desarrollo de armas nucleares durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial. \u00ab<em>Downwinders<\/em>\u00bb es el t\u00e9rmino empleado para describir a las comunidades, principalmente de Arizona, Nevada, Nuevo M\u00e9xico, Utah y otras regiones de los EE. UU., que estuvieron expuestas a la contaminaci\u00f3n o lluvia radioactiva causadas por estas pruebas con armas nucleares. Los <em>downwinders<\/em> de Nuevo M\u00e9xico fueron los primeros de la historia, pero no se encuentran amparados por la Ley federal de compensaci\u00f3n por exposici\u00f3n a la radiaci\u00f3n de 1990."},{"footnote":"El centro de pruebas de Arenas Blancas, situado cerca de Alamogordo, en el estado de Nuevo M\u00e9xico, en EE. UU., ha estado operativo desde 1963. La NASA y el Departamento de Defensa de EE. UU. lo usan para evaluar materiales peligrosos, componentes para vuelos espaciales y sistemas de propulsi\u00f3n de cohetes."},{"footnote":"Se puede obtener m\u00e1s informaci\u00f3n sobre este proyecto de Chim\u2191Pom en http:\/\/dontfollowthewind.info"}]}],"intro_preview_headline":"An interview with Luis Campos and Ana Mar\u00eda G\u00f3mez L\u00f3pez <br> Edited by Ana Mar\u00eda G\u00f3mez L\u00f3pez","intro_preview_txt":"<strong><span class=\"has-font-maison-neue\" style=\"font-family: 'Maison Neue';\">At the time of this interview, news of viral mutations \u2013 P.1, B1.17, B1.351, 501.V2 \u2013 dominate global headlines about the ongoing SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. Had 2020 and 2021 been different years, Luis Campos, associate professor in history of science at the University of New Mexico, would have overlapped with Ana Mar\u00eda G\u00f3mez L\u00f3pez and the other fellows of the \u00bbMutations\u00ab interdisciplinary thematic residency at Akademie Schloss Solitude. True to the theme of the residency and the remote format of its realization, the following interview contains reflections that, in lieu of conversations in the outskirts of Stuttgart, have taken place through online platforms and e-mail correspondence as SARS-CoV-2 gains new forms and continues to shape public health policies, social restriction measures, and vaccine campaigns worldwide.<\/span><\/strong>","intro_preview_img":29738,"post_id_old":"","post_author":null,"post_subtitle":"An interview with Luis Campos and Ana Mar\u00eda G\u00f3mez L\u00f3pez <br> Edited by Ana Mar\u00eda G\u00f3mez L\u00f3pez","post_preview_img_hide_on_single":false,"post_txt_old":"","post_pdf":null,"post_copyright":"ccl_default","translated_post":true,"translations":[{"translation_anchor":15,"translation_language":"Spanish Version"}],"post_copyright_individual":"","post_related_posts":[29756,29277,29336],"related_posts_post":[13951]},"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.akademie-solitude.de\/de\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/29737","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.akademie-solitude.de\/de\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.akademie-solitude.de\/de\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.akademie-solitude.de\/de\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/16"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.akademie-solitude.de\/de\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=29737"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/www.akademie-solitude.de\/de\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/29737\/revisions"}],"acf:post":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.akademie-solitude.de\/de\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/person\/13951"},{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.akademie-solitude.de\/de\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/29336"},{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.akademie-solitude.de\/de\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/29277"},{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.akademie-solitude.de\/de\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/29756"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.akademie-solitude.de\/de\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=29737"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"project","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.akademie-solitude.de\/de\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/project?post=29737"},{"taxonomy":"project_type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.akademie-solitude.de\/de\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/project_type?post=29737"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}